Physical Principles of Respiratory Care

Terminal Learning Objective:

Demonstrate understanding of the Physical

Principles of Respiratory Care in accordance with
Egan’s Fundamental’s of Respiratory Care, 10th
Edition, Chapter 6.
Enabling Learning Objectives
• Compare and contrast the three primary states of
matter.
• Describe the characteristics of internal energy.
• Describe the First Law of Thermodynamics.
• Compare and contrast the four ways in which heat
transfer between two objects can be affected.
• Describe the relationship between temperature and
kinetic energy.
• Describe the concept of absolute zero.
• Compare and contrast the Kelvin, Fahrenheit, and
Celsius temperature scales.
• Convert temperature from one scale to another.
 Enabling Learning Objectives
• Describe the process and characteristics of matter as
they undergo phase changes (melting and freezing).
• Describe the properties of liquids, to include: pressure,
buoyancy, viscosity, cohesion, adhesion, surface
tension, and capillary action.
• Describe the process and characteristics of the liquid-
vapor phase changes.
• Describe the process of evaporation and the effect of
temperature on that process,
• Define water vapor pressure.
• Compare and contrast the concepts of absolute and
relative humidity.
• Calculate relative humidity.
• Describe the process of condensation.
 Enabling Learning Objectives
• Calculate percent body humidity.
• Calculate humidity deficit.
• Describe the influence of pressure and surface area on
evaporation.
• Describe the similarities and differences between gases and
liquids.
• Describe the relationship between temperature and the
velocity of gas molecules.
• Describe the concepts of molar volume and density of gases.
• Describe the concept of gaseous diffusion and how it is
affected by weight, temperature, and mechanical agitation.
• Describe the principles and concepts that apply to pressure in
gases.
 Enabling Obj. (Cont)
• Describe the concept of solubility of gases in liquids, to
include Henry’s Law.
• Compare and contrast the laws describing gas behavior
under changing conditions (Boyle’s, Charles’, Guy-Lussac’s,
and Combined Gas laws).
• Describe the effect of water vapor on gas pressure and how
pressure computations can correct these effects.
• Describe the properties of gases at extremes of temperature
and pressure.
• Describe the effect that fluids in motion have on pressure
and flow patterns.
• Describe the relationship between flow, velocity, and cross-
sectional area in a fluid in motion.
• Compare and contrast the Bernoulli Effect, fluid entrainment,
Venturi tube, Pilot tube, fluidics, and the Coanda Effect.
Class Procedures
 State of Matter

Gas, Liquids, Solids and

Plasma*
Solids
Solid Molecules (Fig 6-1)
Characteristics:

• Internal Order

• Limited Motion

• Van der Waal forces

Liquids

Liquid Molecules (Fig 6-1)

Characteristics:

• Capable of flow

• Mutual Attraction

• Take-on-Shape of
Container
Gases

Gas Molecules (Fig 6-1)

Characteristics:

• Weak Attractive
Forces

• Capable of Flow

• Easily Compressed

• No Boundaries
Internal Energy of Matter

Kinetic Energy Potential Energy

Internal Energy and Temperature
Gas molecular activity
(Fig 6-2)

Temperature and
Kinetic Energy are
closely related. The
temperature of a gas is
directly proportional to
its Kinetic Energy
The 1st Law of Thermodynamic

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed only

transformed in nature. A substance must gain
exactly equal the energy lost by its surroundings.
Based on this law, you can increase the internal
energy of an object by heating it or performing
work on in
Heat Transfer

• Conduction

• Convection

• Radiation

• Vaporization
Conduction

• Primary Method for

Solids

• Direct Contact
Thermal Conductivity

• Heat transfer across • Table 6-1, page 104.

materials of high
thermal conductivity
occurs at a faster rate
than across materials
of low thermal
conductivity
 Convection
• Air is warmed in one
location and then
circulated to carry the
heat elsewhere

• Fluid movements
carrying heat are
called convection
currents

Primary method for fluids (liquid & gas)

Radiation

• When Electromagnetic
waves travel through
space and come in
contact with an object
it is called Radiation.

• Used to keep newborn

infants warm

Without Direct Contact !

Vaporization

Evaporation

• Liquid changes to a
gas states

• Heat for this comes

from the surroundings
 Condensation

• Occurs when a gas

returns to its liquid
state.

• Gives heat back to the

surroundings

Principle for refrigerators

 Temperature

What is temperature?
Temperature Scales

• Kelvin

• Celsius

• Fahrenheit
 Degrees Kelvin

International System of
Units (SI) • Absolute Zero- a
temperature should
exist at which there is
Based on Molecular Motion no kinetic energy
& (0 degrees Kelvin).
The Triple Point definition of
water ≅ 273o K (0.0o C) • Impossible to achieve
Degrees Celsius

The scale used – Absolute Zero -273º

with the metric
system and – Freezing 0º
commonly used
– Boiling 100º
in MTFs.
– Body Temp 37º
 Degrees Fahrenheit

The primary scale in the

fps or British system of
measurement and the – Absolute Zero -460º
scale we commonly use in
America. – Freezing 32º

– Boiling 212º

– Body Temp 98.6º

Temperature Conversion Formulas
Celsius to Kelvin

Simply add 273

Celsius to Fahrenheit

or
Fahrenheit to Celsius

or
 Change of State
• Definitions:

The energy required to

• Melting Point freeze a substance
must equal that
• Latent Heat needed to melt it…
The freezing & melting
points of a substance
• Freezing Point
are the same.

Definitions found in Glossary

Change of State

Latent Heat of Fusion

Properties of Liquids
Property of Liquid

Depth Density

Simply how deep The measure of relative

something is “heaviness” of objects with
(measurement from a constant volume.
top to bottom)
Property of Liquid
• Liquids exert pressure. The pressure exerted by
a liquid depends on both its height (depth) and its
weight density.

• 1 Atmosphere of pressure is approximately:

760 mmHg
Pascal’s Principle
Properties of Liquids

• A given liquid’s
pressure is the same
at any specific depth
(height), regardless of
the container’s shape
Archimedes’ Principle
(Buoyancy)

Properties of Liquids

• Liquids exert a buoyant

force because the
pressure below a
submerged object
always exceeds the
pressure above it
• Gases exert a buoyant
force
• Buoyancy helps keep
solid particles
suspended in gases
(aerosols)
Viscosity

Properties of Liquids
• A fluid’s viscosity is
directly proportional to
the cohesive forces
between its molecules

• Viscosity varies with

temperature (Inversely
Related)
 Cohesion and Adhesion
Properties of Liquids

• Cohesion – the
attractive force
CONCAVE CONVEX
between like
molecules

• Adhesion – the
attractive force
between unlike
molecules
Surface Tension
Properties of Liquids
Surface
• Surface Tension – Substance Temp (℃) Tension
(dynes/cm)
force exerted by like
Water 20℃ 73
molecules at a liquid’s
surface. Water 37℃ 70

Blood 37℃ 58

• For a given liquid, Plasma 37℃ 73

surface tension varies Ethyl 20℃ 22
inversely with Mercury 17℃ 547
temperature.
Capillary Action
Properties of Liquids

• Capillary action is a
phenomenon in which
a liquid in a small tube
moves upward,
against gravity

• This phenomenon is
the basis for “capillary
stick” blood samples,
as well as, types of
humidifiers and
surgical dressings
Liquid Vapor Phase Changes

Boiling, Evaporation, Vapor Pressure &

Humidity
 Vaporization (Boiling)

• Boiling point – temperature at which a liquid’s vapor

pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure

• The greater the ambient pressure, the greater the

boiling point

• This converts essentially all internal energy to kinetic

energy

Liquid-(Gas)Vapor Phase Changes

 Vaporization (Evaporation)
• The change from liquid to gas at a temperature below
the boiling point

• After water is converted to a vapor it acts like a gas

and exerts pressure – water vapor pressure

• No other factor influences evaporation more than

temperature

Liquid-Vapor Phase Change

Factors Influencing Vaporization

Liquid-Vapor Phase Changes

 Vaporization
Influence of Pressure Influence of Surface Area
• High Temperatures • More surface area more
increase vaporization vaporization

• Low temps slow

vaporization

• High Pressure impede

• Low Pressure promote

Humidity Quiz

Hold Down Ctrl Key and Right Click

 Humidity

Relative Humidity (RH)

• Ratio of Content to
Capacity @ given Temp

•Never Exceeds 100%

 Humidity
Percent Body
Humidity (%BH)
Humidity Deficit

%BH is the same as RH, except the capacity (or denominator) is fixed at 43.8
mg/L

(BTPS) Body Temp, Barometric Pressure, Saturated with Water Vapor

Temperature (℃) Vapor Pressure (mmHg) Water Vapor Content (mg/L)
37 47.00 43.8
 Properties of Gases

Gases share many of the same properties

as liquids. They exert pressure, are
capable of flow and exhibit viscosity .
Kinetic Activity
Property of Gases
• Very weak attractive
forces

• The driving force behind

diffusion

• Travel randomly at very

high speeds with
frequent collisions.

• Directly Proportional to
Temperature
Molar Volume
• Avogadro's Law – 1-gram atomic weight of any
substance contains exactly the same number of
atoms, molecules, or ions

• 6.023 x 1023 Avogadro's constant; in SI equals 1 mole

• At STPD, the ideal molar volume of any gas is 22.4L

except CO2 (22.3L)

•This value is used to calculate gas densities and

convert dissolved gas volumes into moles per liter
Gas Density
• The ratio of mass to volume
• A dense substance has heavy (high atomic weight)
particles packed closely together
• Uranium – dense; Hydrogen Gas – Low density
• See Box 6 – 1, page 115
• Density for a gas mixture is calculated using the
percentage or fraction of each gas in the mixture

Dwair = (FN2 x gmw N2) + (FO2 x gmw O2)

22.4 L
 Diffusion
Property of Gases

• When molecules move

from an area of higher
concentration or
pressure to an area of
lower concentration or
pressure.
 Gaseous Diffusion
Properties of Gases
• Graham’s law quantifies Diffusion.

• According to this principle, lighter gases diffuse rapidly,

heavy gases diffuse more slowly

• Heating and mechanical agitation speed diffusion

 Gas Pressure
• Pressure is a measure of force per unit area

• 1 atmosphere (1 atm):
– 14.7 lb/in2
– 1034g/cm2
– 760 mmHg (76 cm of Mercury column height in vacuum
tube at sea level)
 Dalton’s Law
Properties of Gases Pg 117
• Gas mixtures exert pressure

• The pressure exerted by a gas mixture must equal the

sum of the kinetic activity of all its component gases

• The pressure exerted by a single gas in a mixture is

called partial pressure
 Partial Pressures
• To calculate the partial pressure multiply the fractional
concentration times total pressure (Barometric
Pressure).

Example: Room Air is approximately 21% O2 & 79% N2

PO2 = .21 x 760 torr = 160 torr

PN2 = .79 x 760 torr = 600 torr

Dalton’s Law
 Solubility of Gases in Liquids
Henry’s Law
• Predicts how much of a given gas will dissolve in a
liquid.

• At a given temperature, the volume of gas that

dissolves in a liquid is equal to its solubility coefficient
times its partial pressure

• Increase Temperature = Decrease Solubility

• Decrease Temperature = Increase Solubility
Gas Behavior Under Changing
Conditions

Laws describing Gas behavior Under

Changing Conditions….
Ideal Gas (Behavior)
• No energy is lost during molecular collisions

• The volume of the molecules is negligible

• No forces of mutual attraction exist between

molecules
Combined Gas Law
 No Constant

 Complex Interaction of Variables

Charles Law ( )

PRESSURE
is
CONSTANT

Volume varies DIRECTLY change in Temperature

 Boyle’s Law

• The Pressure & Volume

within a system are
INVERSELY related

• Temperature is Constant
Gay-Lussac’s Law ( )

• The pressure &

temperature within a
system are DIRECTLY
related…

• Volume is CONSTANT
What’s constant

• BoT

• ChaP

• GaV
Gas Laws Video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6-oyxnkZC0
 Critical Temperatures
The highest temperature at which a substance can exist as a liquid.
(Regardless of Pressure)

Gas ℃ ℉

Helium -267.9 -450.2

Oxygen -118.8 -181.1

Carbon 31.1 87.9

Dioxide

Critical pressure
Variations in Gas Behavior
 Variations in Gas Behavior

• Joule-Thompson
Effect

• Expansion cooling

• Real gases, not ideal

Mini Clini pg122

 Variations in Behavior

Adiabatic Compression Mini Clini pg 122

Cause of Ignition
Fluid Dynamics
Flow :The bulk movement of a
substance through space

Liquids and gases can flow

Pressures in Flowing Fluids

Static Flowing
Flow Resistance
• Diameter of tube

• Viscosity of Fluid

• Greater Viscosity and

smaller cross section =
greater decrease in
the pressure along the
tube

Pressure in Flowing Fluids

Patterns of Flow

• Laminar – discrete
cylindrical layers

• Turbulent – irregular
eddy currents; chaotic

• Transitional – mixture
the respiratory tract
 Bernoulli Effect
 Velocity and lateral pressure are inversely proportional

 When fluid flows through a uniform diameter tube, pressure

decreases progressively over the length of the tube

Patterns of Flow
Bernoulli Effect (Velocity)
Fluid velocity, at a constant flow, varies inversely with
the cross-sectional area of the tube.
Bernoulli Effect (Pressure)
According to the Bernoulli theorem, lateral pressure of
a flowing fluid must vary inversely with its velocity.V a,
flow in tube “a”; va, velocity in tube “a”; vb, velocity in
tube “b”; Vb, flow in tube “b”; Pa, lateral wall pressure in
tube “a”; Pb, lateral wall pressure after restriction.
Fluid Entrainment

Venturi and Pitot

Venturi Tube
• Widens just after its jet or nozzle to restore fluid
pressure levels to prejet levels as long as the angle of
dilation is less than 15o.
• One drawback, any build up of pressure downstream
decreases fluid entrainment.
• A Pilot tube overcomes this drawback by restoring
fluid velocity, instead of fluid pressure.
 Coanda Effect
• The primary principle underlying most fluidic circuitry
• Also known as wall attachment
• The pressure near the contoured wall becomes
negative relative to atmospheric,
• Atmospheric pressure locks the gas stream against
wall until interrupted by some counterforce.

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=id_3fhKlSY8
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aF92B6Gon3M
Questions???