Resident Physics Lectures: Radiographic Film

Resident Physics Lectures
Radiographic Film
Prof. J.K Tonui, PhD
School of Medicine,
Department of Radiology & Imaging
Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, the student is expected to:
 Describe stages of film processing and their functions .
 Describe various types of films and their uses.
 Know the standard screen-film sizes available
commercially.
 Understand how films are handled and stored.
 Define safe light and explain why is it needed in x-ray
darkroom.
2 RIB 810, 811 & 812 Imaging Physics 08/19/19

Introduction
X-rays films
 Most common hard copies used in radiology, but
 Are being replaced now by filmless or digital IRs with
many theoretical benefits such as low cost and security.
Film emulsion,
 Has been refined successfully for radiology applications,
and
 Is used with and without screen, video recording, cine
recording, and film recording from image plates.

Light vs. Dark Areas on Film
Dark spots in the film
 Are silver halide crystals that have been exposed
to photons (x-rays or light), where

 They turn to black metallic silver after processing.
Light areas on the film
 Are where no crystals are exposed and
 Unexposed silver halides are washed away
during processing.

Film Processing
After exposure of film to light or x-rays,
 Latent image is formed at the sensitivity speck
sites on individual film grains, and

 Is processed to convert latent image to a
viewable or manifest permanent image, and is

done in 3-stages:
1. Development,
2. Fixing and
3. Washing.

Film Development
Development
 Magnifies latent image by reducing remaining AgBr in
exposed crystal to silver and giving developed or

manifest image, and
 Uses chemical developer, which is usually a solution of
water, developing agents, an activator, a restrainer, a

preservative, and a hardener, (see Table in next slide for
chemical type and use) and
 The film is immersed to a sequence of this chemical
solutions as shown in Fig. in next slide.

Film Development
Source: Bushberg et. al, pg. 180

Film Development
The film development
 Can be done either
manually or
automatically.
automatically
 This is an automatic
processor and should

 Deliver consistent
performance, film after

film, day after day.

Automatic Processing
Development processes
 Can be done either manually or automatically.
However,
 Automatic processing is preferred because
 It is much faster than manual, where
 Automatic process takes typically 90 s from
introducing exposed film to receiving a dried

image.

Automatic Processing
Automatic processing
 Maintains consistent image quality, and
 Uses deep processing tanks kept at constant
temp. and
 Rollers immersed in the tanks to transport
the film and

 Ensures that film is subjected to consistent
processing conditions.

Film Development
Chemical reactions involved in development
 Is highly dependent on both temperature and
concentration of chemicals, as well as time, and

 Both conditions are controlled by the processor,
 Typical temperature in the processor is 35°C
(95°F), and is controlled precisely by a thermostat,

and
 Pumps circulate the liquid in each tank to ensure
adequate thermal and chemical mixing.

Film Development
Note that
 AgBr crystals that are not exposed to photons
form no latent images, and hence remain

inert to chemical development.
Developing agents or chemicals
 Are reducing agents, and act as a source of
electrons to initiate reduction of Ag+ to Ag

atom:

Film Development
Note that
 The phenidone agent participates in chemical
reactions in film areas with a low concentration

of latent image centers (will appear lighter,
lower OD regions of the manifest image), and
 The hydroquinone participates more in areas of
the emulsion that are more heavily exposed

(darker areas or higher OD of the image).

Film Development
Latent image silver atoms
 Cause the entire silver halide crystal or grain to
be reduced to silver, and

 When the emulsion has been completely
developed it will consist of:

o Silver halide crystals reduced completely to silver
atoms representing amplified latent image

information, and
o Unexposed and unaltered silver halide crystals.

Fixing Processes
Fixing
 Is used to remove unexposed silver halide crystals
in gelatin after development, because

 These silver halide crystals are still sensitive to
light, and
 Hence, exposing them to light will cause self-
development , which
 Will change the image, hence need to be
deactivated.

Fixing Processes
Fixing stage,
 Dissolves undeveloped silver halide crystals
in a fixer chemical compound called

ammonium thiosulfate (NH4)2S2O3 which
removes the unexposed, unaltered silver
halide as a soluble complex:

Wash Processing
Silver thiosulfate complex
 Is carried out of the emulsion when the film is
thoroughly washed with clean water, but

 This complex compound is still light sensitive to
light and will slowly decompose leaving a silver

deposit on the film image in a poorly washed films,
which
 Is the main cause of darkening and consequent
deterioration of archived films.

Washing Process
 Thus,
 After fixing, the film is thoroughly washed in water in
order to remove processing chemicals and any remaining

dissolved silver halide, which
 Leaves only the insoluble silver grains embedded in pure
gelatin.
 Drying
 Removes the excess water solvent from the gelatin, which
 Produces a completely permanent archival material known
as photographic film.

Types of X-ray Film
Types:
 Screen film used with intensifying screens,
o Single emulsion-
emulsion emulsion on one side of base.
o Double emulsion – emulsion coated on both sides of
base.
 Direct exposure film or non-screen film.
 Special purpose:
o Duplication, Cine, Dental

Special Film Types
Direct exposure:
 Used for small body parts measuring <10 cm,
but
 Requires 10 to 100 time more exposure.
 No longer used except for dental radiography.
Single emulsion film:
 Used in mammography units, with
 A single screen behind the film.

Special Film Types
Laser Film:
 Used in digital radiography such as CT scan, MRI
and US scan to print images using laser printers,

which
 Are dry chemical printers (similar to laser printers
used in computer printers).
Spot film:
 Special roll film of 70 to 105 mm width used in
fluoroscopy in medical radiography.

Standard Screen-Film Sizes
English Units SI Units (cm)
8” x 10” 20 x 25
10” x 12” 24 x 30
11” x 14” 30 x 35
7” x 17” 18 x 43
14” x 17” 35 x 43
14” x 36”

Safelight
 Films
 Are usually loaded to and
unloaded from cassette in

dark rooms, hence
 Requires special lighting to
avoid film exposure, and

 Filters are used to produce red
light spectrum that do not

exposure of the film as seen in
this Fig.

SAFELIGHTS

Handling & Storage of X-ray
Films
X-ray films
 Are sensitive radiation detectors and hence
must be handled in radiation free areas, hence

o Film storage must be shielded.
o The darkroom adjacent to the x-ray room must be
shielded.
o If film use is low, more shielding may be required
(to reduce possibility of self exposure).

Films
Improper handling of the film will result in poor image
quality due to artifacts:

 Avoid bending, creasing or otherwise rough handling the
film.
 Avoid sharp objects contacting the film.
 Hands must be clean and dry.
 Avoid hand creams, lotions or water free hand cleaners.
 Static electricity or a dirty processor can cause artifacts,
and
 Artifacts must be avoided.

Films
X-ray Films
 Are sensitive to heat and humidity from the
time it is manufactured until the time it is

viewed, hence must be controlled, because
 Heat and humidity causes fog or a loss of
contrast.
o Film should be stored at 20º C (68º F).
o Humidity should be between 40% and 60%.

Films
Light will expose the film, hence film must
be handled and stored in the dark:

 If low level diffuse light exposes the film, fog
is increased.
o Luminous watches, cell phone and
darkroom light leaks should be avoided.
 Bright light causes gross exposure.

Films
Shelf life
 All film is supplied in boxes with an expiry date:

o Most film is supplied in boxes of 100 sheets.
o The 14” x 36” size is supplied in 25 sheet boxes with each
sheet interleaved with a paper.
The oldest film in stock should always be used first.
 Rotation is important.
 Expired will loose speed and contrast and have
increased fog.

Film Storage
FILM BINS FILM Shelfs

Future Fate of Films
Films
 Are dying out across most (but not all) of the world,
where
 They are being faced out gradually in convectional X-
ray imaging systems (including mammography), and

 As a result of digitization in every sector in the 21 st
century and radiology is not an exception, but

 Are high cost currently especially in developing world.

Resident Physics Lectures: Radiographic Film

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Resident Physics Lectures

 Describe stages of film processing and their functions .

 Describe various types of films and their uses.

 Know the standard screen-film sizes available

 Define safe light and explain why is it needed in x-ray

2 RIB 810, 811 & 812 Imaging Physics 08/19/19

 Most common hard copies used in radiology, but

 Are being replaced now by filmless or digital IRs with

many theoretical benefits such as low cost and security.

 Has been refined successfully for radiology applications,

recording, and film recording from image plates.

3 RIB 810, 811 & 812 Imaging Physics 08/19/19

 Are silver halide crystals that have been exposed

to photons (x-rays or light), where

Light areas on the film

 Are where no crystals are exposed and

 Unexposed silver halides are washed away

4 RIB 810, 811 & 812 Imaging Physics 08/19/19

 Latent image is formed at the sensitivity speck

sites on individual film grains, and

viewable or manifest permanent image, and is

5 RIB 810, 811 & 812 Imaging Physics 08/19/19

 Magnifies latent image by reducing remaining AgBr in

exposed crystal to silver and giving developed or

water, developing agents, an activator, a restrainer, a

solutions as shown in Fig. in next slide.

6 RIB 810, 811 & 812 Imaging Physics 08/19/19

Source: Bushberg et. al, pg. 180

7 RIB 810, 811 & 812 Imaging Physics 08/19/19

 Can be done either

processor and should

performance, film after

8 RIB 810, 811 & 812 Imaging Physics 08/19/19

 Can be done either manually or automatically.

 Automatic processing is preferred because

 It is much faster than manual, where

 Automatic process takes typically 90 s from

introducing exposed film to receiving a dried

9 RIB 810, 811 & 812 Imaging Physics 08/19/19

 Maintains consistent image quality, and

 Uses deep processing tanks kept at constant

the film and

10 RIB 810, 811 & 812 Imaging Physics 08/19/19

 Is highly dependent on both temperature and

concentration of chemicals, as well as time, and

 Typical temperature in the processor is 35°C

(95°F), and is controlled precisely by a thermostat,

adequate thermal and chemical mixing.

11 RIB 810, 811 & 812 Imaging Physics 08/19/19

 AgBr crystals that are not exposed to photons

form no latent images, and hence remain

Developing agents or chemicals

 Are reducing agents, and act as a source of

electrons to initiate reduction of Ag+ to Ag

12 RIB 810, 811 & 812 Imaging Physics 08/19/19

 The phenidone agent participates in chemical

reactions in film areas with a low concentration

the emulsion that are more heavily exposed

13 RIB 810, 811 & 812 Imaging Physics 08/19/19

 Cause the entire silver halide crystal or grain to

be reduced to silver, and

developed it will consist of:

atoms representing amplified latent image