Carissa R.

Balaria
• At the end of the course, the student will be
able to:
• Recall roles and importance of research in
radiation technology.
• Identify topics of interest for research work
• Discuss purposes of research in research
• Define the roles of radiation technologists in
the conduct of research
A. Introduction to research
1. Definition of Research
2. Importance of Research in Radiation
Technology
3. Roles of Radiation Technologists in Research
4. Evolution of Research
5. Purposes of Research
• What Is Research?
Research
• Systematic inquiry using disciplined methods to solve problems

Radiation Technology research

• Systematic inquiry to develop knowledge about issues of
importance to the radiation technology profession

Evidence Based Practice

• Radiation Technologists in various settings are adopting an
evidence-based practice that incorporates research findings into
their decisions and their interactions with clients.
• Tradition
• Authority
• Clinical experience; trial and error; intuition
• Logical reasoning (inductive & deductive)
• Assembled information (e.g., quality
improvement data)
• Disciplined research
• Drug Development, Delivery and
• Evaluation
• Image Processing, Analysis and Display
• Image Science
• Musculoskeletal Imaging
• Optical Imaging
• Nuclear Medicine
• Probability and Statistics
• Translational Research
Purpose Types of Questions Types of Questions
(QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH) (QUALITATIVE RESEARCH)
Identification What is the phenomenon?
Description How prevalent is the What are the dimensions of
phenomenon? the phenomenon?
How often does the phenomenon What variations exist?
occur? What is important about the
What are the characteristics of the phenomenon?
phenomenon?
Exploration What factors are related to the What is the full nature of the
phenomenon? phenomenon?
What are the antecedents to the What is really going on here?
phenomenon? What is the process by which
the phenomenon evolves or is
experienced?
Purpose Types of Questions (QUANTITATIVE Types of Questions
RESEARCH) (QUALITATIVE RESEARCH)
Explanation What are the measurable associations How does the
between phenomena? phenomenon work?
What factors cause the phenomenon? Why does the
Does the theory explain the phenomenon exist?
phenomenon? What is the meaning of the
phenomenon?
How did the phenomenon
occur?
Prediction What will happen if we alter a
phenomenon or introduce an
intervention?
If phenomenon X occurs, will
phenomenon Y follow?
Control How can we make the phenomenon
happen or alter its nature or prevalence
Can the occurrence of the
phenomenon be prevented or
controlled?
A world view; a general perspective on the complexities
of the real world, with certain assumptions about reality
Key paradigms for research:
– Positivist paradigm
– Naturalistic paradigm
– Pragmatic paradigm
– Critical/orientational
paradigm
• Positivist assumption: Reality exists; there is a real
world driven by natural causes

• Naturalist assumption: Reality is multiple and

subjective, constructed by individuals
• Positivist assumption: The inquirer is independent from
those being studied
• Naturalist assumption: The inquirer interacts with those
being studied; findings reflect the interaction
• Positivist assumption: Values are held in check;
objectivity is sought
• Naturalist assumption: Subjective values are inevitable,
desirable
Positivist Naturalistic
Fixed design Flexible design
Discrete, specific concepts Holistic
Deductive processes Inductive processes
Control over context Context-bound
Verification of hunches Emerging
interpretations
Quantitative information Qualitative
information
Seeks generalizations Seeks patterns
• Basic
• Applied
• Evaluation
• Action
• Orientational/Critical Research
Quantitative Term Qualitative Term
Subject ---
Study participant Study participant
Concepts, constructs Concepts, constructs
Variables Phenomena
Data (numeric values) Data (narratives)
Relationships Patterns of association
Reliability, validity Trustworthiness
A characteristic or quality that takes on different
values, i.e., that varies from one person to the next
Examples:
– Grade Weighted Average
– Weight
– Type of Teaching Method
– Age
– Birthweight
– Exposure to a pathogen (Yes or No)
QUALITATIVE VARIABLES – also categorical or
nominal variables
• merely classifications, as membership in one
of a few groups
• generally described in terms of percentages or
proportions
• often displayed in contingency tables or
bar/pie charts.
Examples:
• Race - black/African American, white,
Asian, American Indian/Alaskan native,
Native Hawaiian/other Pacific Islander
• Cervical tissues - cancerous, normal
• Sex - male, female
QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES – also called
numeric, scaled, or metric variables
• variables that can be measured according
to an amount or quantity;
• generally described with means and
standard deviations
Examples:
• Colony count
• AST: ALT ratio
• LAP score
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES - variables that are
manipulated or treated in a study in order to
see what effect differences in them will have
on those variables proposed as being
dependent on them.
• Synonyms: cause, input, predisposing factor,
antecedent, risk factor, characteristic,
attribute, determinant, intervention
DEPENDENT VARIABLES - variables in which
changes are the results of the level or
amount of the independent variable(s)
• Synonyms: effect, outcome,
consequence, result, condition, disease
Examples:
• Alive or dead
• Treatment success or treatment failure
CONFOUNDING / INTERVENING VARIABLES
- variables that should be studied as they
may influence or ‘confound’ the effect of
the independent variable(s) on the
dependent variable(s).
Examples:
• Sex, age, ethnic origin, education, marital
status,
• social status
Example: In a study of the effect of TB on
child mortality, the nutritional status of
the child may play an intervening role.
• TB - independent variable
• child mortality - dependent variable
• nutritional status of the child –
confounding variable

• Effects of probiotics on total serum IgE

levels in high risk atopic neonates
• NOMINAL VARIABLES – categorical variables
with no natural ordering of the categories
Ex: leukemia – lymphoblastic, myeloid,
erythroid, monomyelocytic
– Dichotomous or binary variable – when the
variable exactly has two categories
Ex: Outcome – alive, dead
Pregnancy test – positive, negative
• ORDINAL VARIABLES – variables with
natural ordering of categories; the
magnitude is not important, but there is
an order to the data
Ex: Pain classified on a 4-point scale - none,
mild, moderate, severe
Tumor stage – 0 (in situ), I, II, III, IV
• Occasionally, a variable can be classified
as either nominal or ordinal.
Ex: Genotype classified with four genotype
categories of AA, AB, BB, O (nominal).
The number of A alleles are counted and
the trait is treated as an ordinal scale,
such as 0, 1, or 2 A alleles.
DISCRETE OR DISCONTINUOUS NUMERIC
SCALE -values only take integers or a small
number of values
• Both order and magnitude are important for
discrete variables, but the values are usually
restricted to integers or whole numbers
Ex: Number of mutant alleles
Number of patients
CONTINUOUS NUMERIC VARIABLE
- the values are not restricted to a set of
specified values, can include decimals or
fractions
Ex: RBC pallor area: 3/4
Potassium (e.g.4.03 mEq/L)
• NOMINAL SCALE –variables that can be categorized into
groups
• ORDINAL SCALE –variables that can be ranked or ordered;
can either be qualitative or quantitative.

Ex: Height -qualitative if recorded as short, medium, or tall;

quantitative if recorded in actual height measurement,
e.g. 5 ft 5 in
Pain scale (0 to 10) –quantitative, ordinal
Pain is ranked according to severity but it does not mean that a
score of 2 indicates a pain that is 2 times more severe than a
pain with a score of 1.
• INTERVAL SCALE –exact distance between
two categories can be determined but the
zero point is arbitrary
Ex: Temperature –arbitrarily, freezing point
is set at 0ºC.

It does not mean that at 0ºC, there is no

temperature at all. It also does not mean
that a temperature of 80ºC is twice as hot
as 40ºC.
• RATIO SCALE –similar to interval scale but
zero point is fixed; ratio of two numbers
can be computed and interpreted.
Ex: Mass in kg – a zero kg mass means
absence of weight. A mass of 80 kg is
twice as heavy as 40 kg.
NOTES:
• Some variables are always qualitative in
nature.
Ex: Sex (male, female)
Disease status (sick, not sick)

• Data in ratio scale can be transformed to the

nominal scale but not vice versa.
Ex: Height in cm can be transformed to
short/tall. But height expressed as short/tall
can not be transformed to actual height in
cm.
• Other variables can be measured both as
a qualitative or quantitative variable
depending on the objective of the data
Ex: Weight –can be recorded as
lightweight/medium weight/heavyweight
(qualitative) or in actual weight
measurement in kg (quantitative)
 Provides Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

“Counts” X X X X
Frequency of distribution

Mode, Median X X X

The “order” of values is X X X

known
Can quantify the X X
difference between each
value
Can add or subtract X X
values
Can multiple and divide X
values
Has true zero X
• Continuous (e.g. height)
• Discrete (e.g., number of children)
• Categorical (e.g., marital status)
• Dichotomous (e.g., gender)

• Attribute variable vs. Active variable

Independent variable—the presumed cause (of a
dependent variable)
Dependent variable—the presumed effect (of an
independent variable)

Example: Motivation (IV)  Acad. Performance (DV)

• Conceptual definition: the abstract or
theoretical meaning of a concept being
studied
• Operational definition: the operations
(measurements) a researcher must perform to
collect the desired information
Box 2.1 Example of Quantitative Data
Box 2.2 Example of Qualitative Data
 Relationship: a bond or connection between
variables
• Cause-and-effect (causal) relationship (e.g.,
cigarette smoking and lung cancer)
• Functional (associative) relationship (e.g.,
gender and life expectancy)
• Conceptual • Methodologic
• Financial
• Administrative
• Practical
• Ethical
Designing studies that are:
• Reliable and valid (quantitative studies)
• Trustworthy (qualitative studies)
• Reliability
The accuracy & consistency of obtained
information

• Validity
The soundness of the evidence—whether
findings are convincing, well-grounded
An influence producing a distortion in study results
Examples of factors creating bias:
– Lack of participants’ candor
– Faulty methods of data collection
– Researcher’s preconceptions
– Faulty study design
Achieved by holding constant factors (extraneous
variables) that influence the dependent variable, to better
understand its relationship with the independent variable

Randomness—An important tool for achieving control

over extraneous variables
Generalizability (Quantitative research): The
extent to which study findings are valid for other
groups not in the study
Transferability (Qualitative research): The extent
to which qualitative findings can be transferred
to other settings
• A shrewd guess or inference that is formulated
and provisionally adopted to explain
observed facts of conditions and to guide
further investigation.
• Simple Hypothesis- predicts the relationship
between one independent variable and one
dependent variable.
– E.g. Academic Performance is related to success in
the licensure examination
• Complex Hypothesis- predicts the relationship
between two or more independent variables and
two or more dependent variables.
– E.g. Heredity, home environment and quality of
instruction are related to intelligence, motivation
and performance in school.
• Directional or Predictive hypothesis- specifies the
direction of the relationship between the variables
being studied.
– E.g. People who smoke are more prone to lung cancer
than those who do not smoke.
• Non Directional Hypothesis- predicts only that there is
a relationship between the variables being studied
but does not specify what it is.
– E.g. There is a difference in the level of anxiety of pre-
surgical patients who received pre-operative instruction
than those who do not receive such instruction
• Null Hypothesis- is an assumption that there is no
difference between the studied variables.
– E.g. There is no significant relationship between the
academic performance and the success in the licensure
examination.
Major Classes of Quantitative Research
• Experimental research
Researchers actively introduce an intervention or treatment
• Nonexperimental research
Researchers collect data without intervening or introducing
treatments

Major Research Traditions in Qualitative Research

• Grounded theory research
• Phenomenological research
• Ethnographic research
Phase 1: Conceptual Phase
Phase 2: Design and Planning Phase
Phase 3: Empirical Phase
Phase 4: Analytic Phase
Phase 5: Dissemination Phase
1. Formulating the problem
2. Reviewing related literature
3. Undertaking clinical fieldwork
4. Defining the framework and developing
conceptual definitions
5. Formulating hypotheses
6. Selecting a research design
7. Developing intervention protocols
8. Identifying the population
9. Designing the sample plan
10.Specifying methods to measure research
variables and collect data
11.Developing methods to protect human/animal
rights
12.Finalizing and reviewing the research plan
13.Collecting data
14.Preparing data for analysis

15. Analyzing the data

16. Interpreting results
17.Communicating the findings
18.Utilizing findings in practice
• Identification of a research problem
• Orientation to what is known/not known
• Determination of gaps or inconsistencies in a body
of research
• Determination of a need to replicate a study
• Identification of clinical interventions that need to
be tested
• Identification of relevant conceptual frameworks for
a research problem
• Identification of suitable designs and data collection
methods
• Identification of experts who could be used as
consultants on a project
• Assistance in interpreting findings and developing
implications
• Principal reliance on primary sources (research
reports written by researchers who conducted the
study)
• Less reliance on secondary sources (summaries of
studies by others)
• Peripheral use of anecdotal reports, opinion
articles, case reports
 1. Explore /
Explain
relationship
between contexts

Operationalize Identify the

concepts concept

Define the concept

An abstraction that purports to account
for or explain phenomena
• Classical theory—An abstract generalization that
systematically explains relationships among
phenomena
• Descriptive theory—A theory that thoroughly
describes a phenomenon, based on rich
observations of it
• Grand theory—A theory that attempts to explain
large aspects of human experiences
• Middle-range theory—A theory that focuses on
a specific aspect of human experience

Idea Hypothesis Theory

• Deal with abstractions, assembled in a coherent
scheme
• Represent a less formal attempt to explain
phenomena than theories
• Do not have formal propositions about
relationships among phenomena
The overall conceptual underpinnings of
a study
• Theoretical framework (based on theory)
• Conceptual framework (based on a conceptual
model)
1. Develop a preliminary definition
2. Do an in-depth literature review
3. Identify exemplary cases
4. Map the concept’s meaning
5. State the revised conceptual definition
Title Page
Approval Sheet
Editing Sheet
Acknowledgment
Abstract
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
CHAPTER 1: THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND
• Background of the Study
• Review of Related Literature
• Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
• Statement of the Problem
• Hypothesis
• Significance of the Study
• Scope and Limitation
• Definition of Terms
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY
• Research Design
• Research Locale
• Research Instrument
• Population and Sampling
• Data Gathering Procedure
• Ethical Considerations
• Data Analysis Procedure
CHAPTER 3: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CHAPTER 4: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATION
• Summary
• Conclusion
• Recommendations
REFERENCES
APPENDIXES