NC – A control system which primarily

focuses on the controlling system.

limited programming capability at the
machine tool .limited logic beyond the
direct input.
CNC- A numerical control system in which the
data handling , control sequences, and response
to the input is determined by the on-board
computer system at the machine tool.

Machining centre – A machine tool

capable of multiple operations and
processes in a single set-up utilizing
multiple axis. Typically possess an
automatic mechanism for the change
of the tools .machine motion is
programmable, servo motors drive
feed mechanism for the tool axis,
positioning feedback is provided by
the resolvers of the control system.
The three basic components of a numerical system: (a) program of instruction
(b) controller unit (c) machine tool
Point-to-point (PTP) NC
 The cutting tool is moved relative to the work piece (i.e., Either the cutting tool
moves, or the work piece moves) until the cutting tool is at a numerically defined
position and then the motion is paused.
 The cutting tool then performs an operation.
 When the operation is completed, the cutting tool moves relative to the work piece
until the next point is reached, and the cycle is repeated.
simplest example of a PTP NC machine tool is the NC drilling machine.
Straight-cut NC
 Straight-cut system are capable of moving the cutting tool parallel to one of the
major axes (X-Y-Z) at a controlled rate suitable for machining.
 It is appropriate for performing milling operations to fabricate work pieces of
rectangular configurations.
 Straight-cut NC systems can also perform PTP operations.

Contouring NC
 In contouring (continuous path) operations, the tool is cutting while the axes of
motion are moving.
 The axes can be moved simultaneously, at different velocity.
 The path of the cutter is continuously controlled to generate the desired geometry
of the work piece.
NC machine tool axis system for milling NC machine tool axis for turning
and drilling operations. Operations.
Control Unit
The control unit, which interprets the coded
instructions (the tape) and directs the machine
through the operations
Tape
The tape, which is punched full of holes, with each
hole providing an electronic pulse. This tape holds
the coded instructions.
Motor
The motor, which supplies the power to move the
tool or table of the machine.
Transducer
The electronic feedback device (transducer), which
tells how much movement, has taken place.
 The machine control unit consists of the data processing unit
(DPU) and the control loop unit (CLU). The functions of DPU and
CLU is shown:
 DPU
The DPU decodes the information contained in the part-
program, process it, and provides instructions to the CLU.
 CLU
The CLU operates the drives attached to the machine lead
screws and feedback signals on the actual position and velocity
of each one of the axes. The drive units are actuated by voltage
pulses.
CNC- COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL
“A numerical control system wherein a dedicated, stored program
computer is used to perform some or all of the basic numerical
control functions in accordance with control programs stored in the
read-write memory of the computer.”
 The processes that are involved in the CNC
machine:
◦ Obtain or develop the part drawing.
◦ Decide what machine will produce the part.
◦ Decide on the machining sequence.
◦ Choose the tooling required.
◦ Do the required calculations for the program co-
ordinates.
◦ Calculate the speeds and feeds required.
◦ Write the NC program.
◦ Prepare setup sheets and tool lists.
◦ Send the program to the machine.
◦ Verify the program.
◦ Run the programs if no changes are required
 Coordinate System: All the machine tools make use of the Cartesian
coordinate system for the sake of simplicity. The guiding coordinate
system followed for designing the axes is the familiar right hand
coordinate system. The main axes to be designated are the
rectangular axes and the rotary axes
 WORK –PART WITH ZERO POINT OF
THE TURNED PART

AXES ON CNC MILLING

(a) AXIS ON THE VERTICAL

MILLING MACHINE,

(b) (b)AXIS ON THE HORIZONTAL

MILLING MACHINE
 FEED HOLD acts as an interrupt control to the program when pressed,
preventing any further tool movement until canceled. During an Automatic
cycle, after canceling CYCLE START must be pressed to resume the cycle
 SINGLE BLOCK With machine running in automatic mode controlled from
the PC, this allows the operation of only a single block (line) of the
program at a time to be toggled on/off. Press CYCLE START to proceed
 CYCLE START This sets the machine in automatic mode and starts the
machining from the PC program.
 Also used to resume an Automatic cycle after a FEED HOLD is canceled and
to action the next line if Single Block is active.
 FEED SPEED CONTROL Provides step less control of tool feed speed in the
X, Y and Z axes from 0 to 100% in 10% increments.
 JOG TABLE AXIS CONTROLS These four buttons control manual movement
of the table in the X and Y axes. Move the table in the X axis while held
pressed. Move the table in the Y-axis while held pressed.
 JOG HEAD AXIS CONTROLS Move the head in the Z axis while held pressed.
Pressing this button together with any of the other six axis control buttons
provides rapid movement of the axes in the indicated direction.
 MANUAL When lit, machine is operated from control panel (Manual mode).
Pressing MAN puts light out and machine is controlled by computer
(Automatic mode). Press MAN again to revert to manual mode operation.
 AIR MIST CONTROL Switches on or off the optional air mist coolant when
fitted.
 DATUM M/C - PROGRAM ABORT After initially powering up the machine
and pressing the Power Reset button (23), with the machine in Manual
mode (Manual mode button lit) press to datum the machine axes.
 With the machine in Manual mode, the machine can be re-datumed at any
point. This should always be done if a physical stall of the axes has
occurred. During an Automatic Cycle with a Feed Hold (1) active, pressing
will Abort the current job.
 TOOL CHANGE With auto tool changer fitted, press to change to next tool
automatically.
 TOOL RELEASE Releases the tool holder from the spindle if fitted with the
auto tool changer. Guard door must be open and tool holder held.
 WORK HOLDING UN-CLAMP Controls un-clamping of work piece in
pneumatic work holder vice, when fitted.
 WORK HOLDING CLAMP Controls clamping of work piece in pneumatic work
holder vice, when fitted.
 DOOR OPEN Controls opening of the automatic doors when fitted.
 Manufacture of prismatic components like gear boxes,
bulkheads, frames, brackets, casings, covers etc require
milling, boring, drilling, tapping and many other related
machining operations to be performed.
 Before the introduction of machining centers, these
machining operations had to be carried out on different
machines resulting in considerable lead time for production.
 Machining centers are very important types of CNC machine
tools and are multifunction machines equipped with
automatic tool changers and are capable of carrying out
milling, drilling, reaming, tapping, boring, counter boring and
allied operations without operator intervention for change of
tools
 Tool changing is carried out using an
automatic tool changer and is accomplished
in 0.5 to 6 seconds depending upon the
machine
 The tool magazine may carry 16 to 100 tools
depending upon its capacity
 In a 2-pallet machine while the job on one
pallet is being machined, the operator can set
up the next job on the free pallet. The
automatic pallet changer (APC).
 a. Horizontal spindle machining centers
 b. Vertical spindle machining centers
 c. Universal machining centers

Factors to determine type and size

 Size and weight of largest piece machined
 Maximum travel of three primary axes

 Maximum speeds and feeds available

 Horsepower of spindle
 Number of tools automatic tool changer can hold
•Horizontal spindle machining centers are
generally single spindle machines with
automatic tool changers. Some exceptions are
machines with turret type tool magazine,
combination horizontal/vertical spindles etc.
• Vertical spindle machining centers are also bed
type machines with:
1. Single spindle and automatic tool changers
2. Multi spindle with turret head
• X-axis traverse provided by table or column
• Y-axis traverse provided by the column or ram
• Z-axis traverse provided by the headstock
Vertical spindle machines are not suitable for large
widths as this increase the throat distance.
 These are similar to horizontal machining centers but with the
spindle axis capable of tilting from horizontal to the vertical
position continuously under computer control. This constitutes
the fifth axis of the machine. In some cases tilting of the table
instead of the spindle provides the movement.
 Machining centers can be easily integrated into a flexible work
cell

Advantages of Universal Machining Centers

 Eliminate handling and waiting time between machines
 Reduced number of fixtures and setups
 Reduced programming time
 Improved product quality
 Less work-in-process (WIP) inventory
 Faster product delivery to customers
 Lower manufacturing costs
 Two types
◦ Those that improve efficiency or operation of
machine tool
◦ Those that involve holding or machining work
piece.
Torque Control Machining
 Calculates torque from measurements at spindle drive motor
 Increases productivity by preventing and sensing damage to cutting tool
◦ Torque measured when machine turning (when not cutting) and value
stored in memory
◦ As cutting begins, stored value subtracted from reading at motor giving
net cutting torque
 Goes higher, computer reduces feed rate, turns on coolant or even
stops cycle.

Automatic Tool Changers:

Large Capacity Horizontal-Type
 Hold up to 200 tools
◦ Identified by either tool number or storage pocket number
◦ Held in storage chain
 Process: (~ 11 seconds)
◦ When one operation being performed, tool required for next moved to pick-up
position
◦ Tool change arm removes and holds it; exchanges when operation complete;
returns tool to storage
Automatic Tool Changers:
Smaller-Capacity Vertical, Disk-Type
 Holds from 12 to 24 tools
 Next tool selected upon completion of machining operation (~ 2.5 to 6 seconds)
◦ Tool carriage mounted on shuttle that slides carriage next to tool spindle
◦ Tool pocket aligned, spindle orients tool holder and tool lock releases
◦ Tool changer rotates to number called, tool lock energized and carriage slides out of
way.
Tools and Tool holders
 Wide variety of cutting tools
 Studies show machining center time
◦ 20% milling, 10% boring, and 70% hole-making in average machine cycle
◦ Cutting time can be as high as 75%
 Large consumption of disposable tools caused by increased tool use
Work-Holding Devices
 Standard step clamp
◦ Used to hold down flat, large parts
◦ Quick-release clamp good when clamps have to be temporarily moved to machine
edge
 Table plate
◦ Flat aluminum plate bolted to machine table
◦ Dowel pin and tapped holes machined into plate to permit fastening vises or
clamps
CNC fixtures
◦ Used to accurately locate many similar parts and hold them securely for
machining.
 Manual Part Programming:
I. Careful study of component drawing- materials, tolerances, surface
finish etc
ii. Select the raw material or blank if not specified.
iii. Select the number of set ups necessary and the machine/s on which
the part is machined.
iv. Deciding the work piece datum for each set up.
v. Designing the fixtures or holding of the job.
vi. Deciding the process and sequence of processes to achieve the
desired accuracy and tolerances
vii. Selecting the tools and cutting parameters.
viii. Writing the program
ix. Input the program and dry run; correct mistakes if any.
x. Produce the first part and inspect.
xi. Correct the program if necessary and progress to lot production.
xii. Create documentation for future reference.
xiii. Archive the program and documentation
The common word addresses are:
N-G-X-Y-Z-A-B-C-F-S-T–M

 N = sequence number of instructions

 G = preparatory function
 XYZABC = co-ordinate and angular data
 F = feed
 S = spindle speed
 T = tool code
 M = miscellaneous function

 The program is directly input into the machine’s memory through

I. Manual data input through the keyboard of the NC console.
ii. A floppy disc and disc drive or magnetic tape.
iii. DNC mode - directly from the computer used for programming or storage of
program to the memory of the CNC machine.
iv. The program can be transferred to the machine through a LAN or through
Internet.
 A program is written as a set of instructions given in the order they are to be
performed. The instructions, if given in English, might look like this:
LINE #1 = SELECT CUTTING TOOL.
LINE #2 = TURN SPINDLE ON AND SELECT THE RPM.
LINE #3 = RAPID TO THE STARTING POSITION OF THE PART.
LINE #4 = TURN COOLANT ON.
LINE #5 = CHOOSE PROPER FEED RATE AND MAKE THE CUT(S).
LINE #6 = TURN THE SPINDLE AND COOLANT OFF.
LINE #7 = RETURN TO CLEARANCE POSITION TO SELECT ANOTHER
TOOL.
 There are two major types of CNC codes, or letter addresses, in any
program. The major codes are called G-codes and M-codes.
◦ G-codes are preparatory functions, which involve actual tool moves.
These include:
 Rapid moves.
 Feed moves.
 Radial feed moves.
 Dwells.
 Roughing.
 Profiling cycles.
◦ M-codes are miscellaneous functions, which include actions necessary
for machining but not those that are actual tool movement. These
include:
 Spindle on/off
 Tool changes
 Coolant on/off
 Programs stops
 Character Address For
 A Angular dimension around X axis
 B Angular dimension around Y axis
 C Angular dimension around Z axis
 D Angular dimension around special axis or third feed function
 E Angular dimension around special axis or 2nd feed function
 F Feed function
 G Preparatory function
 H Unassigned
 I Distance to arc centre or thread lead parallel to X
 J Distance to arc centre or thread lead parallel to Y
 K Distance to arc centre or thread lead parallel to Z
 L Do not use
 M Miscellaneous function
 N Sequence number
 O Reference rewind stop
 P Third rapid traverse dimension or tertiary motion dimension
 Q second rapid traverse dimension or tertiary motion dimension
 R First rapid traverse dimension or tertiary motion dimension
 S Spindle speed function
 T Tool function
 U Secondary motion dimension parallel to X*
 V Secondary motion dimension parallel to Y*
 W Secondary motion dimension parallel to Z*
 X Primary X motion dimension
 Y Primary Y motion dimension
 Z Primary Z motion dimension
 Example: M07 = turn cutting fluid on
 Word Address Format
 N001 G00 X07000 Y03000 M03
 N002 Y06000

Linear interpolation
 G01 G94 X050.0 Y086.5 Z100.0 F40 S800

Circular interpolation
 G02 G17 X088.0 Y040.0 R028.0 F30

Cutter offset
 G42 G01 X100.0 Y040.0 D05
NC part program code Comments
N001 G21 G90 G92 X-050.0 Y-050.0 Z010.0; Define origin of axes.
N002 G00 Z-020.0 S1989 M03; Rapid to cutter depth, turn spindle on.
N003 G01 G94 G42 Y0 D05 F398; Bring tool to starting y-value, start cutter offset.
N004 G01 X075.0; Mill lower horizontal edge of part.
N005 G01 X150.0 Y043.02; Mill angled edge at 35 degrees.
N006 G01 Y070.0; Mill vertical edge at right of part.
N007 G01 X080.0; Mill horizontal edge leading to arc.
N008 G17 G02 X050.0 Y100.0 R030.0; Circular interpolation around arc.
N009 G01 Y125.0; Mill vertical step above arc.
N010 G01 X0; Mill top part edge.
N011 G01 Y0 Mill vertical edge at left of part.
N012 G40 G00 X-050.0 Y-050.0 Z010.0 M05; Rapid move to target point, cancel offset, spindle stop.
N013 M30; End of program, stop machine.
 Advantages of COMPUTER AIDED PART –
PROGRAMMING
 Reduced set-up time
 Reduced lead time
 Reduced inventory
 Better machine utilization and
 Job advancement opportunities.
 “A system connecting a set of numerically controlled machines to a common memory
for part program or machine program storage with provision for on-demand distribution
of data to machines.”In DNC, several NC machines are directly controlled by a
computer, eliminating substantial hardware from the individual controller of each
machine tool. The part-program is downloaded to the machines directly (thus omitting
the tape reader) from the computer memory.
 Direct numerical control (DNC) – control of multiple machine tools by a single
(mainframe) computer through direct connection and in real time
◦ Two way communication
 Distributed numerical control (DNC) – network consisting of central computer
connected to machine tool MCUs, which are CNC
◦ Present technology
◦ Two way communication
 The configuration of the DNC system could be divided into:
 DNC system with-out a satellite computer.
 DNC system with a satellite computer.
 The satellite computers are the minicomputers and they serve to take some
of the burdens off the central computers. Each of the satellite controls
several of t he MT’s.
Justification of the DNC Machine
 When the interconnected CNC machines are large in number .

 When there is a very large program size and that cannot be accommodated in
the part program memory of MCU.
 When a large variety of the part programs are to be commissioned for the
small batch sizes.
 When there exist frequent changes in the program designs.

Advantages of the DNC machine

 Elimination of the punched tape and the tape reader.

 Greater computational capability and flexibility.

 Convenient storage of the NC part programs in the computer files.

 Programs are stored as the CLFILE.

 Shop performance is reported.

 Established the framework for the evolution of the future computer

automated factory- computer integrated manufacturing.
 2-5 percent increase in the operational efficiency of the CNC MT.

 The cost of the DNC installation could be recovered quickly.

 This is an NC with-out a punched tape.
 This is an NC with a part program storage.
 Programs are available for downloading to the CNC MT.
 Programs can be uploaded even after editing from the CNC MT.
 Entry of new programs, editing of new programs and the deletion of the
programs is quite possible.
 Tool Management.
 Tool offset can be downloaded into the MCU.
 Post processor
 Data processing and Management functions.
 Primary storage and Secondary storage.
 CNC can be operated directed from the DNC Computer.
 Flexibility in the shop floor scheduling.
 Part program Preparation.
 Machinability database for calculating speed / feed.
 Data collection, processing and reporting.
 Monitor production in the factory.
 Data processing and Report generation by the DNC Computer.
 Getting the data about the health of the machine in the form of the sensors signals
or the diagnostic messages which can be used for the preventive and the predictive
maintenance.
 Metrological data in the form of dimensional acceptance
 This is a control system that measures certain output process variables like
Spindle deflection , Force , Torque , Cutting temperature , vibration amplitude ,
horse power and uses them to control speed or feed .

 Adaptive control reduces the non-productive time in a machining operation

.Adaptive Control determines proper speeds and feeds during the machining as
a function of variation in the work piece hardness , width or the depth of cut , air
gaps in part geometry, etc. Adaptive control increases the metal removal rate
and reduces the cost per volume of the metal removed.
 Whenever the in-process time consumes significant portion of the machining
cycle time (greater than 40 percent).
 When there are significant sources of variability* in the job.
 When there is a higher cost of the operation of the machine tool.
 When the work material is of high strength namely, steel, titanium, etc. (*The
various sources of the variability in a machining include variable depth / width of
the cut, variable work piece hardness and variable machinability, Variable work
piece rigidity, tool wear and air gaps during the cutting process.)
ACO – Adaptive Control Optimization
 This is an index of the performance of overall process performance such as the
production rate or the cost per volume of the metal removed. The ultimate objective
is to optimize the index of the performance by manipulating speed or feed in the
operation .The Index of the Performance is the ratio of Material Removal rate to that
of the Tool Wear rate.

Adaptive Control Constraints

 Nearly all of the Adaptive Controls are of the ACC type. This is less sophisticated and
less expensive .The objective is to manipulate the speed or the feed so that
measured process variables are maintained at or below their constraint limit values
 Feed forward Adaptive Control & Feedback Adaptive Control
 Direct Methods and Indirect Methods
 Direct methods are ones wherein the estimated parameters are those directly used in
the adaptive controller. In contrast, indirect methods are those in which the estimated
parameters are used to calculate required controller parameters
 There are several broad categories of feedback adaptive control (classification can
vary):
◦ Dual Adaptive Controllers
◦ Optimal Dual Controllers [difficult to design]
◦ Suboptimal Dual Controllers
 Non-dual Adaptive Controllers
◦ Adaptive Pole Placement
◦ Extremer Seeking Controllers
Some special topics in adaptive control can be introduced as well:
 Adaptive Control Based on Discrete-Time Process Identification

 Adaptive Control Based on the Model Reference Technique

 Adaptive Control based on Continuous-Time Process Models

 Adaptive Control of Multivariable Processes

 Adaptive Control of Nonlinear Processes

Fuzzy adaptive control

Adaptive control has even been merged with intelligent techniques such as fuzzy and
neural networks and the new terms like fuzzy adaptive control has been generated
 Self-tuning of subsequently fixed linear controllers during the implementation phase
for one operating point;
 Self-tuning of subsequently fixed robust controllers during the implementation phase
for whole range of operating points;
 Self-tuning of fixed controllers on request if the process behaviour changes due to
ageing, drift, wear etc.;
 Adaptive control of linear controllers for nonlinear or time-varying processes;
 Adaptive control or self-tuning control of nonlinear controllers for nonlinear
processes;
 Adaptive control or self-tuning control of multivariable controllers for multivariable
processes (MIMO systems);
 Manual part programming is time-
consuming, tedious, and subject to human
errors for complex jobs.
 Machining instructions are written in English-
like statements that are translated by the
computer into the low-level machine code of
the Machine.
 It is used for more complex jobs.
 The various tasks in computer-assisted part
programming are divided between;
 The human part programmer
 The computer.

Sequence of activities in computer-assisted part programming

 Define the part geometry

 Specify the tool path and Operation Sequence

 Geometry elements are sometimes defined
only for use in specifying tool path

Examples of part geometry definitions:

 P4 = POINT/35, 90,0
 L1 = LINE/P1, P2
 C1 = CIRCLE/CENTER, P8, RADIUS, 30.0
 Tool path consists of a sequence of points or
connected line and arc segments, using
previously defined geometry elements.

 Point-to-Point command:
GOTO/P0
 Continuous path command:
GOLFT/L2, TANTO, C1
 Geometry statements, also called definition statements; are used
to define the geometry elements that comprise the part.

 Motion commands; are used to specify the tool path.

 Postprocessor statements; control the machine tool operation,

for example, to specify speeds and feeds, set tolerance values
for circular interpolation, and actuate other capabilities of the
machine tool.

 Auxiliary statements; a group of miscellaneous statements used

to name the part program, insert comments in the program and
accomplish similar functions.
 The points, lines, and surfaces must be
defined in the program prior to specifying the
motion statements.
 SYMBOL = GEOMETRY TYPE/descriptive data
 A symbol can be may combination of six or
fewer alphabetical and numerical characters,
at least one of which must be alphabetical.
 Points :
Specification of a point can be accomplished
by the following:
 Designating its x-, y-, and z-coordinates;

P1 = POINT/15.0, 10.0, 25.0

 As the intersection of two intersecting lines;

P2 = POINT/INTOF, L1, L2
 Lines:
 A line in APT is considered to be of infinite
length in both directions. Specification of a
line can be accomplished by the following:
 Two points through which it passes;
 L1 = LINE/P3, P4
 Passes through point (P5) and parallel to
another line (L3) that has been previously
defined;
 L2 = LINE/P5, PARLEL, L3
 Plane :
A plane can be defined by the following:
 Three points through which it passes;
 PL1 = PLANE/P1, P2, P3
 P1, P2 and P3 must be non-collinear Passes
through point (P2) and parallel to another
plane (PL1) that has been previously defined;
 PL2 = PLANE/P2, PARLEL, PL1
 Center and radius

 C1 = CIRCLE/CENTER, P1, RADIUS, 25.0

 Three points through which it passes;

 C2 = CIRCLE/P4, P5, P6
GODLTA statement is useful in drilling operations.
 Drive surface; this is the surface that guides the
side of the cutter.
 Part surface; this is the surface, again pictured as a
plane, on which the bottom or nose of the tool is
guided.
 Check surface; this is the surface that stops the
forward motion of the tool in the execution of the
current command.
PARTNO SAMPLE PART MILLING OPERATION
 MACHIN/MILLING,02

 UNITS/MM

 CUTTER/20.0

 PTARG = POINT/0, -50.0, 10.0

 P1 = POINT/0, 0, -25.0

 P2 = POINT/160.0, 0, -25.0

 P3 = POINT/160.0, 60.0, -25.0

 P4 = POINT/35.0, 90.0, -25.0

 P8 = POINT/130.0, 60.0, -25.0

 L1 = LINE/P1, P2

 L2 = LINE/P2, P3

 C1 = CIRCLE/CENTER, P8, RADIUS, 30.0

 L3 = LINE/P4, LEFT, TANTO, C1
 L4 = LINE/P4, P1
 PL1 = PLANE/P1, P2, P4
 REMARK Milling cutter motion statements.
 FROM/PTARG
 SPINDL/1000, CLW
 FEEDRAT/50, IPM
 GO/TO, L1, TO, PL1, ON, L4
 GORGT/L1, PAST, L2
 GOLFT/L2, TANTO, C1
 GOFWD/C1, PAST, L3
 GOFWD/L3, PAST, L4
 GOLFT/L4, PAST, L1
 RAPID
 GOTO/PTARG
 SPINDL/OFF
 FINI