Industrial Engineering

Work Study [9.19 to 9.26]

STANDARD DATA
Standard data is a catalogue of 'normal time' values for different
elements of jobs or for minute movements involved in different jobs.
This catalogue is prepared by compiling the timings of a number of
standard elements.
The necessity of preparing such a time catalogue or standard data arose
because similar elements or motions are involved in many jobs. In such
cases it is always economical to use the previously timed and compiled
data, called Standard Data. Once the standard data is ready, one requires
to list the job elements or the minute motions of an operation, read their
times from the standard data catalogue and add them up. The total time
thus. obtained is an estimate of normal time for a job which can be
converted into standard time by adding proper allowances.
Element Standard Data
Standard data (Macrodata) is based upon elements of a job, is also
known as 'Element Standard Data' and is compiled for a representative
group of elements by macroscopic methods. It is for families of jobs and
gives normal time for various elements of jobs. This type of data is
restricted to particular operations such as machining on lathe, etc.
Operations are broken down into elements ; which are then, timed to get
a system of data showing normal element time for any and all jobs
having different sizes, materials, feed, speed, depths o f cut, and method
of holding the job, etc. Thus compiled large data helps considerably in
timing a new job, without going into any more time study. This shortens
considerably the amount of time and labour needed to find the standard
time for a new job.
Universal standard data
Universal standard data (Microdata) is based upon minute movements.
This is involved in an operation and is compiled by microscopic
methods. The methods, lie on the principle that all jobs consist of very
little movements called therbligs or in other words, all jobs can be
broken into therbligs. Microdata compiles normal time for a work cycle
or a task by analyzing the fundamental types of motions (therbligs).
This analysis is carried out by frame to frame study of the film of the
work cycle recorded by movie camera. M-T-M (Method-Time-Measur-
ment) and Work factor system are examples of universal standard data.
Macrodata deals with (big) elements and microdata with (minute)
motions. Macrodata is collected by time study whereas microdata is the
result of micromotion study and analysis
Developing the standard data: Steps:
• Decide the range of applicabilty of the standard data.
• Break the jobs into elements. There are three types of elements,
namely constant elements, variable elements and machine elements
• Obtain or conduct time studies for wide varieties of jobs/job
families under different sets of parameters and conditions
• Summarize time studies using a summary form.
• Separate constant elements from variable elements.
• Using statistical methods calculate the average standard time for
constant elements
• Explore the job characteristics leading to variability in elements
• Compile the standard, data, and
• Test the data for its correctness and accuracy.
Uses of Standard Data
• To estimate standard time for new jobs of repetitive or non-repetitive
nature, quickly and eco-f nomically
• For estimating production times for pricing inquires made by
customers or for quotation purposes
• In job design, process planning and scheduling
• To measure productive labour for cost checks
• For balancing production operations
• As a realistic basis for incentive plans
• For constructing time formulae
• In machine (or other) shops where similar jobs are manufactured in
different sizes.
• To find standards for short runs of custom order products, i.e., for
production runs too small to employ time study,
• Repair and maintenance,
• Building construction,
• Machining and assembly,
• Typing and clerical jobs,
• Warehousing,
• Packaging, and
• Planning team work activities as in garment making industries.
ANALYTICAL ESTIMATING
• Setting the time standards for long and non-repetitive operations by
Stop Watch Method are uneconomical.
• Analytical Estimating technique determines the time values for such
jobs either by using the synthetic data or on the basis of the past
experience of the estimator when no synthetic or standard data is
available. In order to produce accurate results the estimator must have
sufficient experience of estimating, motion study, time study and the
use of synthetised time standards
• Work Measurement technique: A development of estimating, whereby
the time required to carry out elements of a job at a defined level of
performance is estimated partly from knowledge and practical
experience of the elements concerned and partly from synthetic data.
Procedure
• Find out job details which include job dimensions, standard procedure
and especially the job conditions, poor illumination, high
temperatures, hazardous environments, availability of special jigs,
fixtures or toolings, condition of materials or other parts to be operated
upon, etc.
• Break the job into constituent elements.
• Select time values for as many elements possible from the library of
element time values (Le., synthetic data).
• To the remaining elements for which no synthetic data is available,
usually the estimator gives suitable time values from his past
knowledge and experience.
In analytical estimating, Relaxation Allowance is not added to individual elements,
rather a blanket, RA., depending upon the type of job and job conditions, is pre
decided as a percentage (10-20%) of the total basic time and is added to the total
basic time.

Advantages
• It possesses almost the same advantages as enjoyed by synthesis
technique of Work Measurement.
• It aids in planning and scheduling.
• It provides a basis for rate fixing for non-repetitive works in
industries.
• It improves labour control.
Drawback

Since analytical estimating relies upon the judgement of the estimator,

the time values obtained are not as accurate and reliable as estimated by
other work measurement techniques.
Uses or Applications

• For non-repetitive jobs, jobs involving long cycle times and the jobs
having elements of variable. nature. Stop watch time study or building
synthetic data, for timing such jobs does not prove to be economical.
• In Repair and Maintenance work, Tool rooms,
• Engineering construction,
• Job production,
• One time large projects, and
• Office routines, etc.
Synthesis builds up the total time for a job by adding the times for
different elements of the job. The element time values are taken from a
catalogue (of elements times) built from a firm's own past time studies
on other jobs having the concerned elements. Time values for all the
elements of a job to be timed can be .found from the previously
collected time data, (Synthetic Data).
P.M.T.S. is similar to synthesis but differs aS regards the characteristics
of the job elements. P.M.T.S. deals with more basic elements of duration
0.1 second or less whereas the element time in case of synthesis may be
of 3 to 4 seconds of duration.
Like Synthesis, P.M.T.S. also relies upon manuals or time catalogues for
building the total time fora job.
Analytical Estimating differs from P.M.T.S. as regards the duration of
elements. It is similar to synthesis.

Analytical Estimating differs from synthesis in the sense that it

estimates time of non-repetitive and long operation jobs, for whose all
job elements, past time data may not be available with the firm. Hence
the time for the new job has to be determined, by timing some elements
on the basis of synthetic data available and the remaining elements are
given a time by the estimator from his past experience of timing
different jobs.
PREDETERMINED MOTION TIME SYSIEM
(PMTS)
• An element in Macro data, e.g., pick up the screw driver may have its
timed value of several seconds whereas in Micro data the elements of
the job are basic human motions with duration 0.1 second or even less.
This section will deal with M-T-M and Work Factor Systems (i.e.,
PMTS) which are known as Micro data. Micro data is based upon
much smaller division of motions (i.e., therbligs) as compared to
Macro data.
• PMTS as a work measurement technique whereby times established
for basic human motions (classified according to the nature of the
motion and the conditions under which it is made) are used to build up
the time for a job at a defined level of performance.
Technique
• The technique to build PMTS data does not measure element time by a
stop watch and thus it avoids the inaccuracies being introduced owing
to the element of human judgement.
• It is assumed that all manual tasks in industries are made up of certain
basic human movements (like reach, move, disengage etc.) which are
common to almost all jobs.
• The average time taken by the (normal) industrial workers to perform
a basic movement is practically constant.
Steps involved in collecting PMTS data

• Select large number of workers doing varieties of jobs under normal

working conditions in industries.
• Record the job operations on a movie film. (Micromotion study).
• Analyse the film, note down the time taken to complete each element
and compile the data in the form of a table or chart.
Uses of PMTS

• It is very useful in Method Analysis.

• It helps modifying and improving work methods before starting the
work on the job.
• It sets time standards for different jobs.
• It assists in constructing time formulae.
• It aids in the pre-balancing of the manufacturing lines.
• it provides a basis for wage plans and labour cost estimation.
• It facilitates training of the workers and supervisor.
Advantages of PMTS
• It eliminates inaccuracies associated with stop watch time study.
• It is superior to stop watch time study when applied to short cycle
highly repetitive operations.
• Time standard for a job can be arrived at without going to the place of
work.
• Unlike stop watch study, no rating factor is employed.
• The time and cost associated with finding the standard time for a job is
considerably reduced.
• Alternative methods are compared easily.
• PMTS helps in tool and product design.
Drawbacks

• PMTS can deal only with manual motions of an operation.

• All categories of motions have not been considered while collecting
PMTS data.
Applications of PMTS

• Machining work,
• Maintenance work,
• Assembly jobs,
• Servicing,
• Office work.
METHOD-TIME-MEASUREMENT (M-T-M)

• M-T-M does not require any modification of the basic time values.
Moreover the basic human movements in this system are analysed in
more detail. M-T-M measures time in terms of TMUs (Time-
Measurement-Units) and 1 TMU=0.0006 minutes.
• M-T-M analyses an industrial job into the basic human movements
required to do the same. From the tables of these basic motions,
depending upon the kind of motion, and conditions under which it is
made, predetermined time values are given to each motion. When all
such times are added up, it provides the normal time for the job.
Standard time can be found by adding suitable allowances.
Various classification of motions
• Reach-R,
• Move-M,
• Turn and Apply Pressure-T and AP,
• Grasp-G,
• Position-P,
• Release-RL,
• Disengage-D,
• Eye travel time and eye focus time-ET and EF.
• Body, Leg and Foot Motions, and
• Simultaneous Motions
Table: Reach-R
In Reach the hand moves to destination and has a predefined objective.
Time for Reach depends upon :
• the distance moved,
• nature of destination,
• type of reach, (ie., whether hands move/accelerate/decelerate at the
beginning to end of reach or not).
Cases for the motion Reach

• Reach to an object in other hand or to an object in fixed location.

• Reach to single object in location which may vary a little from cycle to
cycle.
• Reach to object jumbled with other objects in a group. It involves
search and select.
• Reach to a very small object or reach to an object where accurate
grasp is required.
• Reach to indefinite location to get hand in position for body balance.
Table: Move-M
Move involves transporting an object to a definite location. Time for
Move is influenced by,
• Nature of location or destination,
• Distance moved,
• Weight factor (or resistance),
• Type of move.

There are three cases for the basic motion Move.

• Move object to other hand or against stop.
• Move object to approximate or indefinite location.
• Move object to exact location.
Table: T and AP
Table: Grasp-G
Table: Position-P
WORK FACTOR
Work Factor System, relies on manuals containing time values for
different elements (Le., leg, trunk, foot, etc.) predetermined from high
speed films of a large number of Industrial Operations.
• Work Factor System, is more accurate, has a simple and easy
procedure, in addition to other aspects, it takes into account Mental.
Process Times, considers some non-productive times also, has its
standards for an experienced skilled worker whereas M-T-M standards
are based upon the performance of an average operator. Because of
this reason, for the same job, Work Factor System gives a smaller time
as compared to M-T-M.
Classfication
• Detailed Work Factor
• Simplified Work Factor
• Abbreviated Work Factor
• Ready Work Factor
Principle. Detailed Work Factor considers some basic motions whose
time in turn is modified by the elements of difficulty, (ie., the time
increases in some proportion as the number of difficulties increase). As
it will be explained below, weight, change of direction, etc., each factor
is called a Work Factor. The more the number of Work Factors (up to 4
only) the more is the time taken for a motion.
Elements of Work
• Assemble. Putting objects together.
• Dissemble. Separating different parts of a body.
• Grasp. Taking hold of something.
• Mental Process. In mental process, the senses receive a stimulus and
react accordingly. Sort, inspect, recollect etc., involve mental process.
• Preposition. Locating an article in predetermined position so that it is
ready for use.
• Release. Releasing or letting go an object.
• Transport. Moving an article or hand from one place to another.
ACTIVE SAMPLING, RATiO-DELAY STUDY
A technique in which a large number of observations are made over a
period of time of one or a group of machines, processes, or workers.
Each observation records what is happening at that instant and the
percent of observations recorded for a particular activity or delay is a
measure of the percentage of time during which that activity or delay
occurs.
Work Sampling can tell what percentage of the working day, a person
spends how, i.e., for how much time he works, what time he expends for
his personal needs and for how long he remains idle.
Activities of very long duration cannot be economically timed with the
help of stop watch time study. In such cases, the most appropriate
technique of Work Measurement is Work Sampling.
Principle
• Work sampling relies upon Statistical
Theory of Sampling and Probability
Theory.
• Statistical theory of sampling explains
that adequate random samples of
observations spread over a sufficient
period of time can construct an accurate
picture of the actual situation in the
system. Approximately 500 observations
produce fairly reliable results and the
results obtained through observations
3000 or more are very accurate.
Normal frequency distribution portrays graphically the probability of
occurrence of a chance event. Moreover, itgives important relationship
between the number of standard deviations and the area under the curve
representing the confidence level of an occurrence.

A confidence level of 95.45% signifies that the Work Study Engineer is

sure that 95.45% of the times, the random observation will represent the
true facts.
Procedure
• Determine the main objectives and define each activity to be
measured. Make sure that all the persons connected with the study (ie.,
workers and supervisor) understand the objectives of the study.
• State the desired accuracy limits for the ultimate results.
• Conduct a Pilot Study to estimate the approximate percentage
occurrence of the activity estimate the required number of
observations for the desired accuracy set, and ensure that workers have
become habituated to the visits of the work study engineer.
• Design the actual study. Using the data obtained from Pilot Study.
• Calculate the number of observations to be made.
SYNTHESIS OF WORK STUDY DATA
• Work study data or in other words time study values of elements
obtained from direct time studies, conducted on various jobs having
different parameters and under different conditions are synthesized in
order to obtain 'Synthetic Times' or 'Basic Data' or 'Standard Data’.
• Synthesis is a work measurement technique to build up normal time
for a new job by adding element times collected from previously held
time studies on similar jobs having same elements as possessed by the
new job. Three types of elements, namely machine elements, constant
elements, and variable elements may be there, in a job.
• Machine Elements. They are controlled by the characteristics of the
process such as feed, speed, depth of the cut, amount of metal to be
removed, etc.
• Variable Elements: They are similar in nature from job to job but vary
in difficulty and the time required to complete them, because different
jobs may possess different dimensions, shapes, and weights. Variable
elements may be those, involving hand work or others, influenced by
the changes in metal machinability, quality, tolerances, etc.
• Constant, variable or machine elements in each job, may be repeated
the same number of time, different number of times or they may or
may not be present in various jobs.
• Constant elements are easy to deal with. Only sufficient number of
observations are required to obtain a realistic time. Variable elements
are quite problematic as compared to constant elements and need more
skill and attention on the part of analyst.
COMPARISON OF WORK MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Predetermined Stop Watch Employee

Criteria Work Sampling Historical
Time Standards Timing Reporting

Speed. Time required to measure and Average to Slow to

Average Average Fast
establish standards fast average
Training and Skill required: Technicians, Low to Moderate to
High Low Low
Supervisors moderate high
Cost :Technician, employee time,
Average Fairly high Average Low Minimal
equipment, etc.
Low to .
Assistance in Methods Improvement moderate Very little No

Accuracy: Subjective vs. objective,

Fair to good Very high Low
degree of distortion
Fair to
Acceptability: Employee Fair Good Fair to good Fair to
good
 Interruption of Work Operations Moderate Low Fairly high Fairly high None

Applicability: For physical, clerical,

Very good Average Average Very good Good
professional work

Savings: How quickly; how Average to Fair

Average to high High Fair
much high to good

Usability. In scheduling produc- Average to Fair

High High Fair
tion, evaluating performance high to good

Reporting Requirements: Difficulty

of furnishing data Average Average Average Fair Simple