What is metal forming

• Deformation of raw material into product

– Permanent deformation
– By applying stress (above yield point)
– Stress is usually compressive
• Although tensile and shear components can
develop
– Fracture of material doesn't take place
• The volume of raw material and final
product is same
– Material is displaced
• From location where its has to be removed
• To location where it has to be added
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 Basic theory about deformation
Flow stress =
instantaneous value of
stress required to
continue deforming the
material
Yf  K n

Determined by
integrating the flow
curve equation
between zero and the
final strain value
defining the range of
Available for interest _ K n
forming Yf 
1 n
Elastic Both strength (K) and strain hardening (n) are reduced at
deformation higher temperatures
16th Jan 2015 Ductility is also increased at higher temperatures 2
 Factors affecting the process

• Temperature of
workpiece
• Strain rate

Yf = Cεm
where C is
strength
constant and

m is the
strain-rate
sensitivity
exponent
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 Metal forming process
• Bulk Deformation processes
– Rolling
– Forging
– Extrusion
– Drawing
• Sheet metal working processes
– Bending
– Rolling

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 Hot working and cold working
• The deformation can be carried out at an elevated
temperature
– Significant reduction in the amount of stress required
• The “elevated” temperature is in relation to the MP of the
material
– Usually a Tem>0.4*MP(in °K) is needed
– This temperature is known as ‘Recrystallization Temperature’
(Rc).
– Working on lead at RT is hot working while working with
• If working at this elevated temperature the process is
called hot working
• If working below this temperature the process is called
cold working
– Since no benefit of hot working is obtained above Rc this
working is done at room temperature
• If working is carried out at a temperature above RT but
below Rc the process is known as warm working
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 Hot working (or hot forming)
• Carried out at a temperature above Rc
– Rcis defined as the temperature at which 50% of
recrystallization occurs in one hour
– Rc is dependent on
• melting point
• Impurity
– Rc is 0.3-0.4*MP for pure metal and
– 0.5*MP for alloys
• Maximum temperature is decided by
– excessive oxidation,
– Excessive grain growth, or
– an undesirable phase transformation
• Higher temperature help in
– Giving more time for working
– More reduction in required stress
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 Hot working advantages
• Decrease in yield strength,
– Reduced stress requirement
• Increase in ductility
– More amount of deformation possible
• A low strength phase may also form
– Like austenite, which is easier to deform
• Can remove or reduce chemical inhomogeneities
– Because of high rate of diffusion
• May homogenize the grains
– Because new grains are formed (may be equiaxed)
– Thus reduced anisotropy in the material
• Pores if present in raw material
– May reduce in size or get close completely during
deformation
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 Hot working disadvantages
• Requires heat energy to be supplied
• Working in hot conditions is difficult
– Damage of tools and equipment
– Difficult to handle the work pieces
• Dangerous for the worker
• Many metals emit light at high temperature which are dangerous for
eyes
• Poor control of dimensions
– Thermal contraction
– Uneven cooling
• Of sections of different thickness
• Surface and interior
– Poor surface finish
• Poor surface finish
– Due to oxidation/chemical reaction of surface (mill scale)
– Sticking of tool with the workpiece
• Grain growth may occur
– May require subsequent heat treatment
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 Cold working advantages
• Imparts improved mechanical properties
– Better strength, hardness & wear properties
(due to work hardening)
– Better fatigue properties
• Due to compressive residual stresses
• Increased strength
• Good surface finish & dimensional control
– secondary machining is generally not needed
• Grain flow during deformation provides
directional properties
• No heating is required
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 Cold working disadvantages
• Higher forces are required for
deformation.
– Heavier and more powerful equipment is
required.
• Less ductility is available.
• Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-
free.
• Strain hardening occurs ( may require
intermediate annealing ).
• Undesirable residual stresses may be
produced
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 Rolling
• Rolling is a process that deforms the
work by the use of rolls
• Types of rolling
– flat rolling,
– shape rolling,
– ring rolling,
– thread rolling,
– gear rolling

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 Important features of rolling
• The compressive force applied reduces the
thickness
– To maintain volume consistency, length increases
– Increase in with is negligible
• Material is pulled between the rolls by friction
– So a minimum friction is needed
• otherwise rolls would slip on the workpiece
• The velocity of strip coming out is much higher
than the strip entering the rolls
– The velocity increases gradually throughout the
deformation process
– The peripheral velocity of rolls is (which remains
constant)
• Higher than the strip velocity at the entry point
• Lower than the strip velocity near the exit
• There is a point where both these velocities are same

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 Important features of rolling
• The compressive force applied reduces the
thickness
– To maintain volume consistency, length increases
– Increase in with is negligible
• Material is pulled between the rolls by friction
– So a minimum friction is needed
• otherwise rolls would slip on the workpiece
• The velocity of strip coming out is much higher
than the strip entering the rolls
– The velocity increases gradually throughout the
deformation process
– The peripheral velocity of rolls is (which remains
constant)
• Higher than the strip velocity at the entry point
• Lower than the strip velocity near the exit
• There is a point where both these velocities are same
(known as neutral point)
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 Maximum reduction possible
(maximum draft)
Frictional force near the entry
point Pf=μP
Where P is the pressure applied
by rolls
For the material to be pulled
inside the rolls PfCosα should be
more than Psinα
The minimum condition for the
material to be pulled inside is
PfCosα =Psinα
Or μPCosα= Psinα
Or μ=tanα
Now tanα=Lc/(R- ∆t/2);Lc= 𝑅∆𝑡
μ=tanα= 𝑅∆𝑡/(R- ∆t/2);
μ=tanα≃ 𝑅∆𝑡/R
Therefore
μ2= ∆𝑡/R
α
t1-t2= μ2R

If t1-t2is more than μ2R Lc

The rolls would simply slip and (𝑡1−𝑡2)
material would not be pulled = ∆t/2
inside rolls 2

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Roll separation force can be reduced by
• Roll separating force F≃
Lr*w*flow stress
– Where Lr is the contact length
– w is the width of the strip being rolled
• Torque required=F*a
– Where a ≃L/2

• Power required for

rolling=F*L

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 Roll separation force can be reduced by
• Reducing friction
• Reduce the contact area
– By using smaller diameter rolls
– By taking smaller reductions per pass
• Rolling at elevated temperatures to
lower the strength of the material
• Apply longitudinal tension to the
strip during rolling
– Back tension on the pay off reel or
– Front tension on the takeup reel

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 Factors affecting rolling process
• The diameter of the rolls:
– Affects the maximum draft
– More arc of contact with the workspiece
• More heat loss in hot rolling
– Less chances of roll bending under force

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 Rolling defects

Residual stresses

centre buckles
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 Extrusion
• Extrusion is the process by which a
block/billet of metal is reduced in cross
section by forcing it to flow through a die
orifice under high pressure
• Staring block is usually a cylindrical bar
• Finished part may have a variety of cross
sectional shape (but linear in length)
• The product is also called as extrusion
(like casting)

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 Extrusion
• The reaction of the extrusion billet
with the container and die results in
high compressive stresses which are
effective in reducing cracking of
materials during primary breakdown
from the ingot.
• Less ductile materials can also e
extruded

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 Types of extrusion
• Direct
– Very versetile
• Indirect
– Less versatile
• Lateral
• Impact extrusion

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 Extrusion process detail

• Issues
• Lubrication
• glass
• Die material
• Die steel
coated with
zirconia

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 Die design in extrusion
• Extrusion ratio
– Ratio of area of cross sections
• Shape factor
– Ratio of perimeter/area of extruded
• Easy flow of material
– The outer material should not tend to come
towards centre
• Pipe defect
• Dead zone
– In flat face die
– The conical entranced should be made to
replicate the dead zone.

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 Hydrostatic extrusion

• Using hydrostatic system to reduce the friction and lower

the power requirement.
• Sealing is the major problem.

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 Extrusion defects
• Centre Burst

• Piping defect
– Using small dummy
block can prevent it

• Surface crack
– High extrusion
temperature
• Hot shortness
– High friction
– High speed

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 Wire Drawing
• Drawing operations involve pulling metal
through a die by means of a tensile force
applied to the exit side of the die.
• The plastic flow is caused by compression
force, arising from the reaction of the metal
with the die.
• Starting materials
– hot rolled stock (ferrous) and extruded (non-
ferrous).
• The metal usually has a circular symmetry
(but not always, depending on requirements).

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 Cold-drawing smaller tubing from larger tubing.
Schematic drawing of the rod-or bar-drawing process. The die sets the outer dimension while the
stationary mandrel sizes the inner diameter.
• Estimation of Drawing Force
required:

F = Yavg Af ln (A0/Af)

• Yavg = average true stress of material in

the die gap.

• Assumptions: no friction.
• Work has to be done to overcome friction.
• Force increases with increasing friction.
• Cannot increase force too much, or material
will reach yield stress.
• Maximum reduction in cross-sectional area per
pass = 63%. In general, the reduction in area is
between - 50%.
• To produce a desired size or shape, multiple
draws may be required through a series of
progressively smaller dies. Intermediate
annealing may also be required to restore
ductility and enable further deformation.
 Figure 16-39 Cross section
through a typical carbide
wire-drawing die showing the
characteristic regions of the
contour.

Figure 16-40 Schematic of a multistation synchronized wire-drawing machine. To prevent

accumulation or breakage, it is necessary to ensure that the same volume of material passes through
each station in a given time. The loops around the sheaves between the stations use wire tensions
and feedback electronics to provide the necessary speed control.