TRANSFORMER MODEL

IRINEO P. QUINTO
ECE / REE
 TRANSFORMER
• A DEVICE THAT CONVERTS VOLTAGE, CURRENT
AND IMPEDANCE FROM ONE VALUE INTO ANOTHER
• IT IS MADE UP OF TWO COILS THAT ARE NORMALLY
MAGNETICALLY COUPLED TOGETHER

I1 I2

V1 V2
 TRANSFORMER CORE
• THE MAGNETIC CORE IS BUILT UP OF
LAMINATIONS OF HIGH GRADE
SILICON OR OTHER SHEET STEEL
WHICH ARE USUALLY INSULATED
FROM EACH OTHER TO MINIMIZE
EDDY CURRENT LOSSES IN THE
CORE. THE USUAL THICKNESS OF
LAMINATIONS IS 0.014 INCH AT 60 Hz
 WINDINGS AND INSULATIONS
• USUALLY MADE UP OF COPPER WIRE
OR STRAP
• TYPES OF COIL CONSTRUCTION
– CONCENTRIC
– PANCAKE OR INTERLEAVED
 INSULATIONS
• SPACERS ARE PROVIDED BETWEEN ADJACENT COILS
TO PERMIT DISSIPATION OF HEAT FROM THE WINDINGS
EITHER BY VENTILATION OR BY LIQUID COOLING
MEDIUM
• DOUBLE COTTON, SINGLE COTTON WITH AN UNDER
LAYER OF ENAMEL OR SYNTHETIC ENAMEL INSULATION
IS COMMONLY USED AS CONDUCTOR COVERING.
• STRIPS OF INSULATING PAPER ARE PLACED BETWEEN
LAYERS AND THE COMPLETED COIL IS TAPED AND
IMPREGNATED WITH INSULATING COMPOUND
• MOLDED PLASTICS AND GLASS HAVE BEEN USED FOR
INSULATION
• SILICONS ARE FREQUENTLY USED WHEN HIGH
TEMPERATURE OPERATION IS REQUIRED
 COOLING METHODS
• NATURAL RADIATION
– SMALL TRANSFORMER FOR METERING AND
POWER USES ARE COOLED BY NATURAL
RADIATION AND CONVECTION OF HEAT FROM
THEIR SURFACES
• OIL IMMERSED / SELF COOLED
– THE TRANSFORMER IS IMMERSED IN A TANK
FILLED WITH OIL. HEATED OIL RISES THRU THE
CIRCULATING DUCTS OF THE WINDING AND
COOLS ON ITS DOWNWARD PATH AGAINST THE
SIDES OF THE TANK. LARGE CAPACITIES
REQUIRES CORRUGATIONS ON THE SURFACE
OF THE TANK OR RADIATING JACKETS TO
INCREASE THE SURFACE AREA
 COOLING METHODS
• OIL IMMERSED / WATER COOLED
– INSTEAD OF ENTIRELY DEPENDING ON THE CONDUCTION
OF HEAT FROM THE OIL TO THE SURFACE, COILED TUBES
ARE PLACED IN THE TOP OF TRANSFORMER TANK.
CIRCULATING WATER IS FORCED THRU THESE COILS.
OCCASIONALLY, THE OIL IS CIRCULATED AND COOLED
OUTSIDE THE TRANSFORMER.
• AIR BLAST
– A BLAST OF AIR IS FORCED THRU SPECIAL VENTILATING
DUCTS IN THE CORE AND BETWEEN SECTIONS OF THE
WINDING. THIS METHOD REQUIRES A SUPPLY OF CLEAN
AIR, FANS AND SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION TO ASSURE ITS
CORRECT DISTRIBUTION. IT HAS THE ADVANTAGE OF
REDUCED FIRE AND EXPLOSION RISKS. THIS IS SELDOM
USED FOR SYSTEMS ABOVE 25kV.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
TRANSFORMER OIL
• HIGH DIELECTRIC STRENGTH
• FREEDOM FROM MOISTURE AND
PARTICLES IN SUSPENSION
• ABSENCE OF ALKALIS, ACIDS AND
SULFURS
• LOW VISCOSITY
• LOW SLUDGING TENDENCIES
 RATINGS / STANDARDS
• DISTRIBUTION • POWER TYPE
TYPE – 2.3, 4, 4.6, 6.6, 11,
– 440, 550, 2300. 4000. 13.2, 22, 33, 44, 66,
4600, 6600 V 110, 132, 154, 220,
– 11, 13.2, 22, 33, 44, 66 330 kV
kV
GENERAL TRANSFORMER
EQUATION
I1 I2

V1 V2

V = 4.44NfΦm Volts (rms)

V1 = 4.44N1fΦm Volts

V2 = 4.44N2fΦm Volts
TRANSFORMATION RATIO
N1 V1 I2
a= = =
N2 V2 I1

Ideally: Pp = Ps

V1I1 = V2I2

a – transformation ratio
 LINEAR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
MODEL
• ASSUMPTIONS AND APPROXIMATIONS
– The electric fields produced by the windings are
negligible
– Winding resistances maybe represented by lumped
parameters at the terminals of the windings
– The flux produced by the mmf of one winding may be
divided into two distinct parts:
• Leakage flux linking all of the turns of the winding producing
the mmf but none of the turns of the other winding
• Mutual flux linking all the turns of both windings
– The permeability of the core is constant
– Core losses are negligible
 Transformer Circuit
Φm
R1 I1 I2 R2

V1 e11 ΦL1 ΦL2 e22 V2 ZL

Base on assumptions 2 and 3

Hysteresis Curve for Linear Model

H
 N1i1 – N2i2
F = ρmΦm = N1i1 – N2i2 Φm =
ρm

The flux linking winding N1 and N2 are:

Φ1 = ΦL1 + Φm Φ2 = -ΦL2 + Φm

Applying KVL:
dλ1
V1 = R1i1 + e11 = R1i1 + λ1 = N1Φ1
dt
dλ2
V2 = -R2i2 + e22 = -R2i2 + λ2 = N2Φ2
dt

dλ1 dΦL1 dΦm

e11 = = N1 + N1
dt dt dt
dλ2 dΦL2 dΦm
e22 = = -N2 + N2
dt dt dt
The leakage inductances are:
N1ΦL1 N2ΦL2
LL1 = LL2 =
i1 i2

The emf’s induced in the winding by the mutual flux are:

dΦm dΦm
e1 = N1 e2 = N2
dt dt
di1
V1 = R1i1 + LL1 + e1
dt
di2
V2 = -R2i2 - LL2 + e2
dt
 Φm
R1 LL1 I1 I2 LL2 R2

V1 e11 e1 e2 e22 V2 ZL

e1 N1
=
e2 N2

By assumption no. 4, the permeability of the core is not infinite, thus ρm is not zero.

F = ρmΦm = N1i1 – N2i2 = N1im’ equation (a)

N2
i1 = im‘ + i2 equation (b)
N1
 Circuit Described by (a) and (b)

i1 i2’ i2
N2
Lm’ e1 e2 i2’ = i2
N1
im’

im’ – the current that produces flux which must flow in the inductive circuit

Lm’ – the magnetizing inductance of the transformer referred to the N1

winding defined as follows:
N1Φm N12
Lm’ = =
i ’ ρm
m

when referred to the N2 winding:

N2Φm N22
Lm’’ = =
im’’ ρm
 2
Lm’ N1
N1im’ = N2im’’ =
Lm’’ N2

R1 LL1 LL2 R2

i1 i2’ i2

e11 Lm’ e1 e2 e22

V1 V2 ZL
im’

Transformer Linear Equivalent Circuit

With a sinusoidal excitation:

X1 = 2πfLL1
X2 = 2πfLL2

Xm = 2πfLm’
Referring all variables and parameters on the primary side:

R1 LL1 X2’ R2’

I1 I2 ’
Xm’
E1 = E2’
V1 V2’ ZL’
Im ’

N1E2 2
E2’ = N1
N2 ZL’ = ZL
N2

N1V2 2
V2’ = N1
N2 X2’ = X2
N2
N2I2 2
I2 ’ = N1
N1 R2’ = R2
N2
 THE PRACTICAL
TRANSFORMER MODEL
• SAME ASSUMPTIONS AS THE LINEAR
MODEL BUT CORE LOSS IS NOW
CONSIDERED.
• THE EXCITING CURRENT Ie’ IS NOW
COMPOSED OF:
– THE MAGNETIZING COMPONENT WHICH
MUST FLOW IN THE INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT
Xm’ (Im’)
– THE CORE LOSS COMPONENT WHICH
MUST FLOW IN A RESISTIVE CIRCUIT Rc’
(Ic’)
 R1 LL1 I1 I2’ X2’ R2’

Ie ’

V1 RC’ Xm’ V2’ ZL’

Im’
IC’

EXACT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF THE PRACTICAL

TRANSFORMER MODEL REFERRED TO THE PRIMARY SIDE
 I1 I2’ Xe-1 Re-1 Xe-1 Re-1

Ie ’ I1

V1 RC’ Xm’ V2’ ZL’ V1 V2’ ZL’

Im ’
IC’

APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT REFERRED TO THE PRIMARY SIDE

Re-1 = R1 + R2’ = R1 + a2R2

Xe-1 = X1 + X2’ = X1 + a2X2 N1

a=
I1 = I2’ = I2 / a V2’ = aV2 N2

E1 = E2’ = aE2
PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR THE EXACT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

V1

E1 = E2’ I1’X1

I1’R1
V2’ I2’X2’
I2’R2’
PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR THE APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

V1

V2’ = aV2 I1 Xe1

I1 Re1

V1 = aV2 + I1Ze1
DETERMINATION OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS:

I. OPEN CIRCUIT TEST

I2’ = 0 Re1 and Xe1 are omitted

Poc
Ioc I2 ’ ϴoc = cos-1
VocIoc
Ie ’ Voc
Xm’ =
Iocsin ϴoc
Voc RC’ Xm’
Im’2 = Ioc2 – Ic’2
Im ’
IC’
Poc
IC’ =
Voc

Poc – core losses

II. SHORT CIRCUIT TEST

Xe-1 Re-1
Psc
Re-1 =
ISC2 ISC
Vsc
Ze-1 = VSC
ISC

Xe-12 = Ze-12 - Re-12

III. WINDING RESISTANCE MEASURMENTS USING
WHEATSTONE OR KEVIN BRIDGE

r1, r2 – DC winding resistance of N1 and N2 respectively

R1, R2 – AC winding resistance of N1 and N2 respectively

re1 = r1 + a2r2

If Re1 ≈ re1: If Re1 ≠ re1:

r1Re1
R1 = r1 and R2 = r2 R1 =
r1 + a2r2

Re1 - R1
R2 =
a2
 It is usually assumed that:

Xe-1 X2’
X1 = X2‘ = X2 =
2 a2

The implication of this is that the paths for leakage

flux of both windings have the same reluctance ρL, that is:

ωN12 ωN22
X1 = ρL X2 = ρL

2
N1
X2’= X2
N2
 THREE PHASE IDEAL
TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
DELTA - DELTA

I
I
√3 V aI
V
V a √3
a

V aI

n = a = V/(V/a)
n – transformation ratio
 THREE PHASE IDEAL
TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
WYE = WYE

I aI

I aI

V
V
a
V V
√3 a√3

n = a = V / (V/a)
 THREE PHASE IDEAL
TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
DELTA - WYE

I aI
I
√3 √3
V aI
√3

V
√3 V
a
V
a
n = V/(V√3/a) = a/√3
 THREE PHASE IDEAL
TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
WYE - DELTA

I V aI
V
a√3
a √3

V
aI√3
V
√3
n = V/(V/a√3) = a√3
Determine the exact equivalent circuit of a 10 kVA,
2300/230 V, 60 Hz transformer.
Open Circuit Test at L.S. Voltage:
Voc = 230 V, Ioc = 0.45 A, Poc = 70 W
Short Circuit Test at H.S. Voltage:
Vsc = 120 V, Isc = 4.5 A, Psc = 240 W
Winding Resistances Measured by DC Bridge:
r1 = 5.80 Ω, r2 = 0.0605 Ω
Solution:

ϴoc = cos-1(Poc/VocIoc) = cos-1[70/(230)(0.45)] = 47.44°

Voc 230
Rc” = = = 756Ω
Ioccosϴoc 0.45cos47.44

Voc 230
Xm” = = = 694Ω
Iocsinϴoc 0.45sin47.44

(Note: These parameters are referred to the LS voltage)

Psc 240
Re(HS) = = = 11.85Ω
Isc2 4.52
Vsc 120
Ze(HS) = = = 26.70Ω
Isc 4.5
Xe2 = Ze2 – Re2 = 26.72 – 11.852

Xe = 24Ω
 2
230
Xe(LS) = 24 = 0.24 Ω
2300

Xe(LS)
X2 = X1’ = = 0.12Ω
2
2
2300
re(HS) = r1 + a2r2 = 5.80 + 0.0605 = 11.85Ω
230

Since Re(HS) = re(HS) = 11.85Ω, then:

R1 = r1 = 5.80Ω, R2 = r2 = 0.0605Ω
2
230
R1’ = 5.8 = 0.058 Ω
2300
Copper Loss at the LS voltage:

PLS = Ioc2R2 = 0.452 (0.0605) = 0.0163 W

(Note: Negligible compared to the core loss)

S 10,000
I2(rated) = = = 43.8 A
V 230

R2 X2 X1’ R1’

V1
V2 RC’’ Xm’’ a
Three 10 kVA, 1330/230V, 60Hz transformer are connected Y-∆
to supply at 230V line to line to a heating load of 2
kW/phase and a three phase induction motor load at 21 kVA at
0.80 pf. Determine the line current supplying the
transformer.

Transformer
Bank

Heating 3Φ IM
Load 21 kVA
2kW/Φ pf=0.8
For the Motor:

ϴm = cos -1 0.80 = 36.87°

Pm = 21cos36.87 = 16.8 kW
Qm = 21sin36.87 = 12.6 kvars

For the Heater:

Ph = 2kW per phase (3 phase) = 6 kW
Qh = 0

PT = Pm + Ph = 16.8 + 6 = 22.8 kW

QT = Qm + Qh = 12.6 + 0 = 12.6 kvar

ST2 = PT2 + QT2 = 22.82 + 12.62

ST = 26 kVA
VL(HS) = 1330√3 = 2303.63 V

S = √3VLIL = √3(2303.63)(IL) = 26,000

IL = 6.52 A (at the HS)
In the previous problem, the loads are connected to the
transformers by means of a common three-phase feeders whose
impedance is 0.003 + j0.010 Ω/phase. The transformers
themselves are supplied from a constant potential source by
means of three-phase feeders whose impedance is 0.75+j0.50
Ω/phase. The equivalent impedance of one transformer referred
to the LS is 0.118+j0.238 Ω. Determine the required source
voltage if that of the load is to be 230 V.

2
1330
Ze-HS = a2(Re-LS + jXeLS) = (0.118+j0.238)
230

Ze-HS = 3.94 + j7.96 Ω/transformer

VL at HS √3 (1330)
n = = = 10
VL at LS 230
 ZL ZeHS ZL’

0.75+j0.5Ω 3.94+j7.96Ω 0.003+j0.01Ω

230
LOAD
V/Φ
Vs √3

R X IL

motor
230
Vs heater V/Φ
√3
n

1
R = 0.003 + (0.75+3.94) = 0.0499 Ω
102
1
X = 0.01 + (0.5+7.96) = 0.0946 Ω
102
Taking the load voltage as reference:
230 0°
VL = = 132.79 V
√3

S/Φ = 26/3 = 8.667 kVA

S/Φ 8.667 kVA

IL = = = 65.30 A
VL 132.79 V

ϴ = tan-1 (Qm / P) = tan-1 (12.6/22.8) = 28.90°

IL = 65.3 -28.90°
Vs 230
= VL + IL(R + jX) = + 65.3 -28.9 (0.0499+j0.0946)
n √3

Vs = 10 (138.683 1.585) = 1386.83 1.585

Vs = √3 (1386.83) = 2402 V (line to line)

EDDY CURRENT LOSS
π2d2
We = f2Bm2 10-16 W/cm3
6k

d – thickness of lamination, cm
Bm- maximum value of sine wave of flux, (G)
f – frequency, Hz
k – resistivity per cm3
k = 10-5 for ordinary iron
4 x 10-5 ≤ k ≤ 5 x 10-5 for silicon steel
 HYSTERESIS LOSS
PH = nfVB1.610-7 W

n- Steinmitz coefficient
V – volume or weight depending on the unit of n
B – maximum flux density, G
f – frequency, Hz

Material n, ERG/cm3-cycle

Annealed steel 0.001 to 0.004

Annealed silicon steel 0.0006 to 0.00095
 Voltage Regulation, VR

V2NL – V2FL
VR = 100%
V2FL

Voltage Regulation – the amount of increase in the open

circuit secondary voltage required to maintain constant
rated voltage V2 on the secondary when load is applied
 CONDITIONS
• TRANSFORMER REGULATION SHALL BE DETERMINED FOR
THE RATED VOLTAGE, CURRENT AND FREQUENCY
• WHEN THE REGULATION IS STATED WITHOUT SPECIFIC
REFERENCE TO THE LOAD CONDITIONS, RATED LOAD IS TO
BE UNDERSTOOD
• A SINE WAVE OF VOLTAGE SHALL BE ASSUMED IN
DETERMINING THE REGULATION EXCEPT WHERE
EXPRESSLY SPECIFIED OTHERWISE
• THE POWER FACTOR OF THE LOAD TO WHICH THE
REGULATION REFERS SHOULD BE SPECIFIED. IF THE
POWER FACTOR IS NOT SPECIFIED, 100% POWER FACTOR
SHALL BE ASSUMED
• THE REGULATION AT ALL LOADS SHALL BE CORRECTED TO A
REFERENCE TEMPERATURE OF 75°C
ORDINARY EFFICIENCY, EFFY
OUTPUT
EFFY = 100%
OUTPUT+LOSSES

V2I2cosϴ2
EFFY = 100%
V2I2cosϴ2 + I12r1 + I22r2 + core loss

For maximum ordinary efficiency:

Copper Loss = Core Loss

I12r1 = I22(r1/a2)
 ALL DAY EFFICIENCY, n
• Ratio of the KWH output to KWH input
over 24 hours
• An important figure in distribution
transformers
 Pt + P’t’ + P”t” + . . . . .
n =
Pt + P’t’ + P”t” + . . + I2Ret + I’2Ret’+. . + 24Wc

Wc – core loss
P, P’, P” – load power at various times
t, t’, t” – respective times of Powers P, P’ etc