Sample MSPPT Manual

This is a demonstration sample of a typical
Training Manual chapter.

It is not a complete chapter. Its content has been
reduced.
The document can be customised with your
corporate logo (instead of TTS logo, and
corporate colour schemes.
Options for text:
 British English or American English
 Text size (12 pt shown here is maximum)
 Full or left justification
Licence Category B1, B2 and B3
3.7 Resistance/Resistor
Copyright notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may Objectives:
be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by  The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical
any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical fundamentals of the subject.
recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training  The applicant should be able to give a general description of the
Support Ltd. subject using, as appropriate, typical examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in
Knowledge levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C conjunction with physical laws describing the subject.
Aircraft Maintenance Licence  The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches,
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the drawings and schematics describing the subject.
allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable  The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical
subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the manner using detailed procedures.
category B2 basic knowledge levels.
LEVEL 3
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:  A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the
subject.
LEVEL 1  A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject. knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner.
Objectives: Objectives:
 The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the  The applicant should know the theory of the subject and
subject. interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the  The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the
whole subject, using common words and examples. subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.  The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical
formulae related to the subject.
LEVEL 2  The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject.
subject.  The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical
 An ability to apply that knowledge. manner using the manufacturer’s instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various
sources and measurements and apply corrective action where
appropriate.
Total Training Support Ltd 7-2

© Copyright 2019 Module 3.7 Resistance/Resistor Issue 2 – January 2019
Certification statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA
Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014 Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I,
and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:
Knowledge Knowledge
Part-66 Levels Part-66 Levels
Objective Objective
Reference Reference
A B1 B2 B3 A B1 B2 B3
Resistance/Resistor 3.7 - 2 2 1 (b) - 1 1 -
(a) Positive and negative
Resistance and affecting temperature coefficient
factors; conductance;
Specific resistance; Fixed resistors, stability,
tolerance and limitations,
Resistor colour code, methods of construction;
values and tolerances,
preferred values, wattage Variable resistors,
ratings; thermistors, voltage
dependent resistors;
Resistors in series and
parallel Construction of
potentiometers and
Calculation of total rheostats;
resistance using series,
parallel and series- Construction of
parallel combinations; Wheatstone Bridge.
Operation and use of

potentiometers and
Rheostats;
Operation of Wheatstone
Bridge.

Table of Contents
(a) 6 Resistivity 6
Electrical resistance Error! Bookmark not defined.
Factors that affect resistance Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Resistor definition and symbol 8
Standard colour code systems 8
SMD resistors Error! Bookmark not defined.
Resistors in series and parallel 12
Parallel resistance 16
Types of resistors 24
Potentiometers and rheostats Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Wheatstone bridge 32
(b) Error! Bookmark not defined.
Conductance Error! Bookmark not defined.
Electrical resistor schematic representations Error!
Bookmark not defined.
LDRs and thermistors Error! Bookmark not defined.
Resistor characteristics Error! Bookmark not defined.
Resistor materials Error! Bookmark not defined.
Resistor wattage rating Error! Bookmark not defined.
Other properties of resistors Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Thermistors Error! Bookmark not defined.
Voltage dependant resistors (VDR) Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Construction of potentiometers and rheostats Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Construction of a Wheatstone bridge _ Error! Bookmark
not defined.

(a)
Resistivity
Electrical resistivity (also known as specific electrical Resistivity is temperature dependent, with most materials
resistance) is a measure of how strongly a material opposes increasing in resistivity as temperature increases. This is called
the flow of electric current. A low resistivity indicates a material a positive temperature coefficient. Some materials, including
that readily allows the movement of electrical charge. The SI all semiconductors, have a negative temperature coefficient.
unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm metre. Carbon is a semiconductor material.
It differs from resistance, in that it depends only on the material, The formula quoted for resistivity is usually transposed as
and is a property of the material, and is independent of the follows:
dimensions of the conductor.
ρℓ
The electrical resistivity ρ (rho) of a material is given by R =
A
RA
ρ = This then provides the resistance of a conductor, given its
ℓ resistivity, length and cross-sectional area. These are the
factors which affect resistance. More discussion on these
Where: factors next.
ρ is the static resistivity (measured in ohm metres, Ω-m);
R is the electrical resistance of a uniform specimen of the
material (measured in ohms, Ω);
ℓ is the length of the piece of material (measured in
metres, m);
A is the cross-sectional area of the specimen (measured
in square metres, m²).
The unit of resistivity is thus the ohm-meter; values may be

obtained from tables where they are usually quoted at 0°C. The
resistivities of some of the more common materials in electrical
use are shown in the table below.

Resistivity Resistivity Temperature
Material at 0°C relative to coefficient Use
x 10-8 ohm-metre copper x 10-4 per °C
Silver 1.51 0.95 41
Copper 1.59 1.00 43 Good
Gold 2.04 1.28 40 conductors
Aluminium 2.45 1.54 45
Platinum 9.81 6.17 39.2 Used as
Iron 8.90 5.60 65 conductors
because of
Hard steel 46 28.9 16 their other
Mercury 94 59.2 9 properties
Manganin 41 26.1 0.1 Stable
Constantan 49 30.8 0.4 resistors (low
temperature
Nickrome 110 69 1.5 coefficient)
Carbon 7,000 4,425 Negative Very low cost Dimensions of a conductor

Resistor definition and symbol
A resistor is a passive electrical component with the primary Six band resistors are basically five band resistors with an
function to limit the flow of electric current. additional band at the end that indicates the temperature
coefficient. This indicates the expected change in resistor value
The international IEC symbol is a rectangular shape. In the as the temperature changes in degrees Celsius. Generally,
USA the ANSI standard is very common, this is a zigzag line these temperature coefficient values are extremely small, in the
(shown on the right). ppm range.
Standard colour code systems Resistor colour bands
When decoding the resistor colour bands, consult a resistor
Band resistors colour code table like the one below. For the first two bands,
In the standard four band resistors, the first two bands find that colour’s corresponding digit value. The 4.7 kΩ resistor
indicate the two most significant digits of the resistor’s value. shown here has colour bands of yellow and violet to begin -
The third band is a weight value, which multiplies the two which have digit values of 4 and 7 (47). The third band of the
significant digits by a power of ten. 4.7 kΩ is red, which indicates that the 47 should be multiplied
by 102 (or 100); 47 times 100 is 4,700.
The final band indicates the tolerance of the resistor. The
tolerance explains how much more or less the actual resistance If you’re trying to commit the colour band code to memory, a
of the resistor can be compared to what its nominal value is. No mnemonic device might help. There are a handful of
resistor is made to perfection, and different manufacturing (sometimes unsavoury) mnemonics out there to help
processes will result in better or worse tolerances. For remember the resistor colour code.
example, a 1 kΩ resistor with 5% tolerance could actually be
anywhere between 0.95 kΩ and 1.05 kΩ. Or, if you remember ‘ROY G. BIV’, subtract the indigo (poor
indigo, no one remembers indigo), and add black and brown to
How do you tell which band is first and last? The last, tolerance the front and grey and white to the back of the classic rainbow
band is often clearly separated from the value bands, and colour-order.
usually, it’ll either be silver or gold.
Five and six band resistors
Five band resistors have a third significant digit band between
the first two bands and the multiplier band. Five band resistors
also have a wider range of tolerances available.

Resistor colour code mnemonic
4.7kΩ resistor with four colour bands

Assorted carbon resistors

Colour code charts for 4-, 5- and 6-band resistors
Assorted carbon resistors
Comparison of basic and series circuits.

Example: In the figure below left a series circuit consisting of Example: In the figure below right the total resistance of a
three resistors: one of 10 ohms, one of 15 ohms, and one of circuit containing three resistors is 40 ohms.
30 ohms, is shown. A voltage source provides 110 volts. What
is the total resistance? Two of the circuit resistors are 10 ohms each. Calculate the
value of the third resistor (R3).
Given: R1 = 10 ohms
R2 = 15 ohms Given:
R3 = 30ohms R1 = 40 ohms
R2 = 10 ohms
Solution: RT = R1 + R 2 + R3 R3 = 10ohms
RT = 10 ohms + 15 ohms + 30 ohms
Solution:
RT = 55 ohms
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
In some circuit applications, the total resistance is known and
the value of one of the circuit resistors has to be determined. (Subtract R1 + R2 from both sides of the equation)
The equation RT = R1 + R2 + R3 can be transposed to solve
for the value of the unknown resistance.
RT – R1 – R2 = R3
R3= R –T R –1R 2
R3 = 40 ohms – 10 ohms – 10 ohms
R3 = 40 ohms – 20 ohms
R3 = 20 ohms

Parallel resistance
In the example diagram below there are two resistors Solution:
connected in parallel across a 5-volt battery. Each has a
resistance value of 10 ohms. A complete circuit consisting of V
R =
two parallel paths is formed and current flows as shown. I
Computing the individual currents shows that there is one-half
of an ampere of current through each resistance. The total RT = V T
current flowing from the battery to the junction of the resistors, IT
and returning from the resistors to the battery, is equal to 1
ampere. RT = 5V
The total resistance of the circuit can be calculated by using the 1A
values of total voltage (VT) and total current (IT).
RT = 5Ω
Note: From this point on the abbreviations and symbology for
electrical quantities will be used in example problems. This computation shows the total resistance to be 5 ohms; one-
half the value of either of the two resistors.
Given:
Since the total resistance of a parallel circuit is smaller than any
VT = 5V of the individual resistors, the total resistance of a parallel
IT = 1A circuit is not the sum of the individual resistor values as was the
case in a series circuit. The total resistance of resistors in
parallel is also referred to as equivalent resistance (Req). The
terms total resistance and equivalent resistance are used
interchangeably.

Two equal resistors connected in parallel.

There are several methods used to determine the equivalent Example: The diagram below shows two resistors of unequal
resistance of parallel circuits. The best method for a given value in parallel. Since the total current is shown, the equivalent
circuit depends on the number and value of the resistors. For resistance can be calculated.
the circuit described above, where all resistors have the same
value, the following simple equation is used: Given:
Vs = 30V
R IT = 15A
Req =
N
Solution:
Req = equivalent parallel resistance
VS
R = ohmic value of one resistor Req =
IT
N = number of resistors
This equation is valid for any number of parallel resistors of 30V
Req =
equal value. 15A
Example: Four 40-ohm resistors are connected in parallel.
What is their equivalent resistance? Req = 2Ω
Given: The equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in the diagram

R1 + R 2 + R3 + R 4 below is smaller than either of the two resistors (R1, R2). An
R1 + 40Ω important point to remember is that the equivalent resistance of
a parallel circuit is always less than the resistance of any
Solution: branch.
R
Req =
N
40Ω
Req =
4
Req = 10Ω
Example circuit with unequal parallel resistors.

Equivalent resistance can be found if you know the individual Convert the fractions to a common denominator.
resistance values and the source voltage. By calculating each
branch current, adding the branch currents to calculate total 1 = 2 + 1
current, and dividing the source voltage by the total current, the Req 6Ω 6Ω
total can be found. This method, while effective, is somewhat
lengthy. A quicker method of finding equivalent resistance is to 1 3
use the general formula for resistors in parallel: =
Req 6Ω
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + …1
Req R1 R2 R3 Rn 1 = 1
Req 2Ω
If you apply the general formula to the circuit shown in the
diagram below you will get the same value for equivalent Since both sides are reciprocals (divided into one), disregard
resistance (2Ω) as was obtained in the previous calculation that the reciprocal function.
used source voltage and total current.
Req = 2 Ω
Given:
R1 = 3 Ω The formula you were given for equal resistors in parallel
R2 = 6Ω R is a simplification of
( Req =
Solution: N the general formula for )
resistors in parallel
1 =1+1
Req R1 R2 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + …
Req R1 R2 R3 Rn
1 = 1 + 1
There are other simplifications of the general formula for
Req 3Ω 6Ω resistors in parallel which can be used to calculate the total or
equivalent resistance in a parallel circuit.

Example circuit with unequal parallel resistors.

Reciprocal method - This method is based upon taking the Solution:
reciprocal of each side of the equation. This presents the 1
general formula for resistors in parallel as: Req =1+1+ 1
1 R1 R2 R3
Req = 1 + 1 + ⋯1
R1 R2 Rn 1
Req = 1 + 1 + 1
This formula is used to solve for the equivalent resistance of a 20 Ω 30 Ω 40 Ω
number of unequal parallel resistors. You must find the lowest
common denominator in solving these problems. 1
Example: Three resistors are connected in parallel as shown Req = 6 4 3
+ +
in the diagram below. The resistor values are: R1 = 20 ohms, 120 Ω 120 Ω 120 Ω
R2 = 30 ohms, R3 = 40 ohms. What is the equivalent
resistance? (Use the reciprocal method.) 1
Req = 13 Ω
Given:
R1 = 20 Ω 120
R2 = 30 Ω
R3 = 40Ω 120
Req = Ω
13
Req = 9.23 Ω

Example parallel circuit with unequal branch resistors

Fixed resistors
Variable resistors

Potentiometer as an electronic component Rheostats
A potentiometer is a potential divider, a three-terminal resistor A rheostat is a two-terminal variable resistor. Often these are
where the position of the sliding connection is user adjustable designed to handle much higher voltage and current. Typically
via a knob or slider. Potentiometers are sometimes provided these are constructed as a resistive wire wrapped to form a
with one or more switches mounted on the same shaft. For toroid coil with the wiper moving over the upper surface of the
instance, when attached to volume control, the knob can also toroid, sliding from one turn of the wire to the next. Sometimes
function as an on/off switch at the lowest volume. a rheostat is made from resistance wire wound on a heat-
resisting cylinder with the slider made from a number of metal
Ordinarily, potentiometers are rarely used to directly control fingers that grip lightly onto a small portion of the turns of
anything of significant power (more than a watt). Instead, they resistance wire. The ‘fingers’ can be moved along the coil of
are used to adjust the level of analogue signals (e.g. volume resistance wire by a sliding knob thus changing the ‘tapping’
controls on audio equipment), and as control inputs for point. They are usually used as variable resistors rather than
electronic circuits. For example, a light dimmer uses a variable potential dividers.
potentiometer to control the switching of a triac and so indirectly
control the brightness of lamps. Any three-terminal potentiometer can be used as a two-
terminal variable resistor, by not connecting to the 3rd terminal.
It is common practice to connect the wiper terminal to the
unused end of the resistance track to reduce the amount of
resistance variation caused by dirt on the track.
Applications of potentiometers and rheostats

Potentiometers are widely used as user controls and may
control a very wide variety of equipment functions.
The widespread use of pots in consumer electronics has

declined in the 1990s, with digital controls now more common.
However, they remain in use in many applications. Two of the
most common applications are as volume controls and as
position sensors.

symbols symbol
or
Rheostat Potentiometer
Linear potentiometer
Rotary potentiometer
Interior components of a rotary potentiometer

Rotary potentiometer
Various types of potentiometers

Trimmer potentiometer
Audio control
Sliding potentiometers (‘faders’)
One of the most common uses for modern low-power

potentiometers is as audio control devices. Both sliding pots
(also known as faders) and rotary potentiometers (commonly
called knobs) are regularly used to adjust loudness, frequency
attenuation and other characteristics of audio signals.
The ‘log pot’ is used as the volume control in audio amplifiers,

where it is also called an ‘audio taper pot’ because the
amplitude response of the human ear is also logarithmic. It
ensures that on a volume control marked 0 to 10, for example,
a setting of 5 sounds half as loud as a setting of 10. There is
also an anti-log pot or reverse audio taper which is simply the
reverse of a log pot. It is almost always used in a ganged
configuration with a log pot, for instance, in audio balance
control.
Potentiometers used in combination with filter networks act as

tone controls.
Transducers
Potentiometers are also very widely used as a part of position
transducers because of the simplicity of construction and
because they can give a large output signal.

Sliding potentiometers

The potentiometer and its equivalent circuit as a voltage divider

Wheatstone bridge
Operation of the Wheatstone bridge

A Wheatstone bridge is a measuring instrument invented by The values of R1 and R3 are precisely known but do not have
Samuel Hunter Christie in 1833 and improved and popularized to be identical. R2 is a calibrated variable resistance, whose
by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843. It is used to measure an current value may be read from a dial or scale.
unknown electrical resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge
circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown component. Its An unknown resistor, RX, is connected as the fourth side of the
operation is similar to the original potentiometer except that in
potentiometer circuits the meter used is a sensitive
circuit, and power is applied. R3 is adjusted until the
galvanometer, G reads zero current. At this point,
galvanometer.
RX = R2 × R3/R1. This circuit is most sensitive when all four
The basic bridge circuit resistors have similar resistance values. However, the circuit
The fundamental concept of the Wheatstone Bridge is two works quite well in any event. If R2 can be varied over a 10:1
voltage dividers, both fed by the same input, as shown to the resistance range and R1 is of a similar value, we can switch
right. The circuit output is taken from both voltage divider decade values of R3 into and out of the circuit according to the
outputs, as shown here.
range of value we expect from RX. Using this method, we can
In its classic form, a galvanometer (a very sensitive DC current accurately measure any value of RX by moving one multiple-
meter) is connected between the output terminals and is used position switch and adjusting one precision potentiometer.
to monitor the current flowing from one voltage divider to the
other. If the two voltage dividers have exactly the same ratio Applications of the Wheatstone bridge
(R1/R2 = R3/R4), then the bridge is said to be balanced and One very common application in the industry today is to monitor
no current flows in either direction through the galvanometer. If sensor devices such as strain gauges. Such devices change
one of the resistors changes, even a little bit in value, the bridge their internal resistance according to the specific level of strain
will become unbalanced and current will flow through the (or pressure, temperature, etc.), and serve as the unknown
galvanometer. Thus, the galvanometer becomes a very resistor RX. However, instead of trying to constantly adjust R2
sensitive indicator of the balance condition. to balance the circuit, the galvanometer is replaced by a circuit
that can be calibrated to record the degree of imbalance in the
Using the Wheatstone bridge bridge as the value of strain or other condition applied to the
In its basic application, a DC voltage (V) is applied to the sensor.
Wheatstone Bridge, and a galvanometer (G) is used to monitor
the balance condition.

Construction of a wheatstone bridge using 3
carbon resistors and a rheostat (the unknown)
A wheatstone bridge test board


Sample MSPPT Manual

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Sample MSPPT Manual

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

This is a demonstration sample of a typical

Training Manual chapter.

Licence Category B1, B2 and B3

Total Training Support Ltd 7-2

Operation and use of

Total Training Support Ltd 7-3

Total Training Support Ltd 7-4

The unit of resistivity is thus the ohm-meter; values may be

Total Training Support Ltd 7-5

Total Training Support Ltd 7-6

Total Training Support Ltd 7-7

4.7kΩ resistor with four colour bands

Total Training Support Ltd 7-8

Total Training Support Ltd 7-10

Total Training Support Ltd 7-11

Total Training Support Ltd 7-12

Total Training Support Ltd 7-13

Given: The equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in the diagram

Total Training Support Ltd 7-15

Total Training Support Ltd 7-16

Total Training Support Ltd 7-17

Total Training Support Ltd 7-18

Total Training Support Ltd 7-19

Total Training Support Ltd 7-20

Applications of potentiometers and rheostats

The widespread use of pots in consumer electronics has

Total Training Support Ltd 7-21

Interior components of a rotary potentiometer

Various types of potentiometers

One of the most common uses for modern low-power

The ‘log pot’ is used as the volume control in audio amplifiers,

Potentiometers used in combination with filter networks act as

Total Training Support Ltd 7-23

Total Training Support Ltd 7-24

Total Training Support Ltd 7-25

Operation of the Wheatstone bridge

Total Training Support Ltd 7-26

A wheatstone bridge test board

Total Training Support Ltd 7-34

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen