Chapter13 - Transmission Lines - Vic

Principles of Electronic
Communication Systems
Third Edition
Louis Frenzel
McGraw-Hill © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chapter 13
Transmission Lines

Topics Covered in Chapter 13
 13-1: Transmission-Line Basics
 13-2: Standing Waves
 13-3: Transmission Lines as Circuit Elements
 13-4: The Smith Chart

13-1: Transmission-Line Basics
 Transmission lines in communication carry telephone
signals, computer data in LANs, TV signals in cable
TV systems, and signals from a transmitter to an
antenna or from an antenna to a receiver.
 Their electrical characteristics are critical and must be
matched to the equipment for successful
communication to take place.
 Transmission lines are also circuits.

 The two primary requirements of a transmission line
are:
1. The line should introduce minimum attenuation to the
signal.
2. The line should not radiate any of the signal as radio
energy.

Types of Transmission Lines
 Parallel-wire line is made of two parallel conductors
separated by a space of ½ inch to several inches.
 A variation of parallel line is the 300-Ω twin-lead.
Spacing between the wires is maintained by a
continuous plastic insulator.

 The most widely used type of transmission line is the
coaxial cable. It consists of a solid center conductor
surrounded by a dielectric material, usually a plastic
insulator such as Teflon.
 A second conducting shield made of fine wires
covers the insulator, and an outer plastic sheath
insulates the braid.
 Coaxial cable comes in sizes from ¼ inch to several
inches in diameter.

 Twisted-pair cable uses two insulated solid copper
wires covered with insulation and loosely twisted
together.
 Two types of twisted-pair cable are
 Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable
 Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable

Figure 13-1: Common types of transmission lines. (a) Open-wire line. (b) Open-wire
line called twin lead. (c) Coaxial cable (d) Twisted-pair cable.
Balanced Versus Unbalanced Lines
 Transmission lines can be balanced or unbalanced.
 A balanced line is one in which neither wire is
connected to ground.
 The signal on each wire is referenced to ground.
 In an unbalanced line, one conductor is connected to
ground.
 Open-wire line has a balanced configuration.

Balanced Versus Unbalanced Lines
 Balanced-line wires offer significant protection from
noise pickup and cross talk.
 Coaxial cables are unbalanced lines.
 Coaxial cable and shielded twisted-pair provide
significant but not complete protection from noise or
cross talk.
 Unshielded lines may pick up signals and cross talk and
can even radiate energy, resulting in an undesirable
loss of signal.
 A device called a balun is used to convert from
balanced to unbalanced lines and vice versa.

Figure 13-2: (a) Balanced line. (b) Unbalanced line.

Wavelength of Cables
 The electrical length of conductors is typically short
compared to 1 wavelength of the frequency they carry.
 A pair of current-carrying conductors is not considered
to be a transmission line unless it is at least 0.1 λ long
at the signal frequency.
 The distance represented by a wavelength in a given
cable depends on the type of cable.

Connectors
 Most transmission lines terminate in some kind of
connector, a device that connects the cable to a piece
of equipment or to another cable.
 Connectors are a common failure point in many
applications.

Connectors: Coaxial Cable Connectors
 Coaxial cables are designed not only to provide a
convenient way to attach and disconnect equipment
and cables but also to maintain the physical integrity
and electrical properties of the cable.
 The. most common types are the PL-259 or UHF, BNC,
F, SMA, and N-type connectors
 The PL-259, also referred to as a UHF connector, can
be used up to low UHF frequencies (less than 500
MHz.)

Figure 13-3: UHF connectors. (a) PL-259 male connector. (b) Internal construction and
connections for the PL-259. (c) SO-239 female chassis connector.
Connectors: Coaxial Cable Connectors
 BNC (Bayonet Neill–Concelman) connectors are widely
used on 0.25 inch coaxial cables for attaching test
equipment.
 In BNC connectors the center conductor of the cable is
soldered or crimped to a male pin and the shield braid is
attached the body of the connector.
 The least expensive coaxial connector is the F-type,
which is used for TV sets, VCRs, DVD players, and
cable TV.
 The RCA phonograph connector is used primarily in
audio equipment.
 The best performing coaxial connector is the N-type,
which is used mainly on large coaxial cable at higher
frequencies.
Figure 13-4: BNC connectors. (a) Male. (b) Female. (c) Barrel connector. (d) T
connector.
Figure 13-6: The F connector used on TV sets, VCRs, and cable TV boxes.
Figure 13-7: RCA (Radio Corporation of America ) phonograph connectors are

sometimes used for RF connectors up to VHF.
Figure 13-8: N-type (Paul Neill of Bell Labs) coaxial connector.

Characteristic Impedance
 When the length of transmission line is longer than
several wavelengths at the signal frequency, the two
parallel conductors of the transmission line appear as a
complex impedance.

 The wires exhibit considerable series inductance whose
reactance is significant at high frequencies.
 In series with this inductance is the resistance of the
wire or braid making up the conductors, which includes
inherent ohmic resistance plus any resistance due to
skin effect.


 The parallel conductors form a distributed capacitance
with the insulation, which acts as the dielectric.
 In addition, there is a shunt or leakage resistance or
conductance (G) across the cable as the result of
imperfections in the insulation between the conductors.

 The result is that to a high-frequency signal. the
transmission line appears as a distributed low-pass filter
consisting of series inductors and resistors and shunt
capacitors and resistors
 This is called a lumped model of a distributed line.

 In the simplified equivalent circuit, the inductance,
resistance, and capacitance have been combined into
larger equivalent lumps.
 The shunt leakage resistance is very high and has
negligible effect, so it is ignored.
 In short segments of the line, the series resistance of
the conductors can sometimes be ignored because it is
so low as to be insignificant.

 Over longer lengths, however, this resistance is
responsible for considerable signal attenuation.
 The effects of the inductance and capacitance are
considerable, and in fact they determine the
characteristics of the line.

 An RF generator connected to a considerable length of
transmission line sees an impedance that is a function
of the inductance, resistance, and capacitance in the
circuit—the characteristic or surge impedance (Z0).
 For an infinitely long transmission line
R  jwL
ZO 
G  jwC

COAXIAL LINE
138 D
Zo  log
r d

Example
A coaxial line 138 D
Zo  log
with an outer εr d
diameter of 5mm has
138 5
75Ω characteristic 75  log
impedance. If the εr d
dielectric constant of 1
d
the insulation is 1.75, 75( 1.75 )
calculate the inner (antilog( )/(5)
138
diameter.
d  0.955mm
.
TWO-WIRE LINE
276 2D
Zo  log
r d

Example
Calculate the characteristic impedance of an open
wire transmission line consisting of two wires with a
diameter of 0.5mm and a separation of 2 cm.
276 2s then :
Zo  log
εr d 276 2(2cm)
Zo  log
but : 1 1cm
0.5mm( )
10mm
εr  1
Zo  525.25 
Velocity Factor
 The speed of the signal in the transmission line is
slower than the speed of a signal in free space.
 The velocity of propagation of a signal in a cable is less
than the velocity of propagation of light in free space by
a fraction called the velocity factor (VF).
Vp Vp 1
VF   
Vc C r

Time Delay
 Because the velocity of propagation of a transmission
line is less than the velocity of propagation in free
space, any line will slow down or delay any signal
applied to it.
 A signal applied at one end of a line appears some time
later at the other end of the line.
 This is called the time delay or transit time.
 A transmission line used specifically for the purpose of
achieving delay is called a delay line.

Time Delay
td  LC
Where:
L = inductance per foot
C = capacitance per foot
td = time in seconds

For example:
If the capacitance of a particular line is 30 pF/ft
and its inductance is 0.075 µH/ft, the delay time is
A 50-ft length of this line would a delay of

Time Delay in coaxial
td  1.016  r
Where:
td = time in ns/ft

For example:
The total time delay introduced by a 75-ft cable with a
dielectric constant of 2.3 is

Phase Shift
360t d

T
Where:
td = time delay
T = period of the signal

The phase shift of the previously described 50-ft
line with a delay of 75 ns and a 4MHz frequency is

Figure 13-11: The effect of the time delay of a transmission line on signals. (a) Sine
wave delay causes a lagging phase shift. (b) Pulse delay.
Transmission-Line Specifications

Transmission-Line Specifications
 Attenuation is directly proportional to cable length and
increases with frequency.
 A transmission line is a low-pass filter whose cutoff
frequency depends on distributed inductance and
capacitance along the line and on length.
 It is important to use larger, low-loss cables for longer
runs despite cost and handling inconvenience.
 A gain antenna can be used to offset cable loss.



Figure 13-14: Attenuation versus length for RG-58A/U coaxial cable. Note that both
scales on the graph are logarithmic.


13-2: Standing Waves
 When a signal is applied to a transmission line, it
appears at the other end of the line some time later
because of the propagation delay.
 If the load on the line is an antenna, the signal is
converted into electromagnetic energy and radiated
into space.
 If the load at the end of the line is an open or a short
circuit or has an impedance other than the
characteristic impedance of the line, the signal is not
fully absorbed by the load.

 When a line is not terminated properly, some of the
energy is reflected and moves back up the line,
toward the generator.
 This reflected voltage adds to the forward or incident
generator voltage and forms a composite voltage that
is distributed along the line.
 The pattern of voltage and its related current
constitute what is called a standing wave.
 Standing waves are not desirable.

Figure 13-15: How a pulse propagates along a transmission line.

Matched Lines
 A matched transmission line is one terminated in a
load that has a resistive impedance equal to the
characteristic impedance of the line.
 Alternating voltage (or current) at any point on a
matched line is a constant value. A correctly terminated
transmission line is said to be flat.
 The power sent down the line toward the load is called
forward or incident power.
 Power not absorbed by the load is reflected power.

Figure 13-16: A transmission line must be terminated in its characteristic impedance for
proper operation.


Calculating the Standing Wave Ratio
 The magnitude of the standing waves on a transmission
line is determined by the ratio of the maximum current
to the minimum current, or the ratio of the maximum
voltage to the minimum voltage, along the line.
 These ratios are referred to as the standing wave ratio
(SWR).
Imax Vmax
SWR = =
Imin Vmin

Reflection Coefficient
Vector quantity representing the ration of

reflected voltage to the incident voltage or
reflected current to the incident current
Vref Iref SWR  1

  
Vinc Iinc SWR  1
1
RETURN LOSS RL 

Matched Load Mismatched Load
condition (ZL = Zo) condition (ZL≠ Zo)
Z L  Zo
0 
Z L  Zo
RL   RL 
1

Short Circuited Load 59 Open circuited Load
condition condition
(ZL = 0) (ZL =α)
  1  1
RL  1 RL  1
Standing Wave Ratio
1 
SWR 
1 
V max Vinc  Vref 1  

VSWR   
V min Vinc  Vref 1  
Im ax I inc  I ref 1  
ISWR   
Im in I inc  I ref 1  

Matched Load condition Load condition when
(ZL = Zo) no power applied
61
SWR  1 SWR  0
Mismatched Load Mismatched Load

condition Z L  Zo condition Z L  Zo
ZL Zo
SWR  SWR 
Zo ZL
Short Circuited Load Open circuited Load
condition (ZL = 0) condition (ZL = α)
SWR   SWR  
Impedance Relations and
Impedance Matching Networks
A. SHORT-CIRCUIT TERMINATION
1. AT  / 4 LINE LENGTH
V max
Z max  ; 
Im in
2. AT /2 LINE LENGTH
V min
Z min  ; 
Im ax
Impedance Relations and
Impedance Matching Networks
B. OPEN-CIRCUIT TERMINATION
1. AT  / 4 LINE LENGTH
V min
Z min  ; 
Im ax
2. AT LINE LENGTH
/2
V max
Z max  ; 
Im in

Example 13-5
An RG-11/U foam coaxial cable has a maximum
voltage standing wave of 52 V and a minimum voltage
of 17 V. Find
(a) the SWR

(b) the reflection coefficient, and
(c) the value of a resistive load.

of 17 V. Find

of 17 V. Find

EXAMPLE:
For a given length of coaxial cable with

distributed capacitance of 49.2 pF/m and
distributed inductance of 243.15 nH/m.
Determine the characteristic impedance.
Solution:
L 243.15nH/m
Zo    70.3Ω
C 49.2pF/m

EXAMPLE:
An open-wire line has the following parameters,
R=10Ω/mi, L=4mH/mi, G=0.4μS/mi, and C=8nF/mi.
Calculate the characteristic impedance at a frequency

of 3400Hz.
Solution: Z R  jL
Zo  
Y G  jC
10  j ( 2 )( 3400)( 4m )
Zo 
0.4   j ( 2 )( 3400)( 8n)
Zo  500134.21  j 57342.276
Zo  503410.73   6.5406 o
Zo  709.514   3.27 o 
EXAMPLE:
Calculate the actual length in feet of a half-
wavelength coax with a velocity factor of 0.63
at 28MHz.
Solution:
c
  vf
f
3x108
  (0.63) 6
 6.75m
28 x10
in feet :
3.28 ft
  6.75m ( )  22.14 ft
1m
 22.14 ft
  11.07 ft
2 2
EXAMPLE:
What is the value of the reflection coefficient
of a complex load ZL.= 30-j60Ω, terminating
Zo = 50Ω?
Solution:
Z L  ZO
Γ
Z L  ZO
(30  j60)  (50)
Γ
(30  j60)  (50)
Γ  0.632   71.57 o

EXAMPLE:
Find the reflection coefficient for a
transmission line with incident voltage VI =
0.15V and VR = 0.005V
Solution:
VR
Γ
VI
0.005V
Γ
0.15V
Γ  0.033
EXAMPLE:
Calculate the SWR for a transmission line
with maximum voltage standing-wave
amplitude of 7.5V and minimum voltage
standing-wave amplitude of 0.15V
Solution:
VMAX
SWR 
VMIN
7.5V
SWR 
0.15V
SWR  50
EXAMPLE:
Find the SWR for a transmission line with maximum
rms current of 1.75A and minimum rms current of 0.9A
at different points in the line.
Solution:
I MAX
SWR 
I MIN
1.75A
SWR 
0.9A
SWR  1.94
EXAMPLE:
What is the SWR for a 75 Ω transmission line that
is terminated in a load resistance of 50Ω?
Solution:
Zo
SWR 
RL
75
SWR 
50
SWR  1.5

EXAMPLE:
A transmitter delivers 100W into a 75Ω loss-less line that is
terminated with an antenna that has an impedance of 50Ω.
Find the coefficient of reflection and the amount of power
that reaches the antenna.
Solution:
Z L  ZO VR 2 PR
Γ ΓP  ( ) ΓP 
PI
Z L  ZO VI
PR
50 - 75 Γ P  (  0 .2 ) 2 0.04 
Γ 100W
50  75
Γ P  0.04 PR  4W
Γ  0.2
PL  PI  PR
 100W  4W
 96W
13-3: Transmission Lines
as Circuit Elements
 The standing wave conditions resulting from open-
and short-circuited loads must usually be avoided
when working with transmission lines.
 With quarter- and half-wavelength transmissions,

these open- and short-circuited loads can be used as
resonant or reactive circuits.

as Circuit Elements

as Circuit Elements

as Circuit Elements
Parallel LC
Exactly λ/4
Series LC
Inductor
Shorter than
λ/4 Capacitor
Capacitor
Longer than
λ/4
Inductor
as Circuit Elements
Resonant Circuits and Reactive Components
 Shorted and open quarter wavelengths act like LC
tuned or resonant circuits at the reference frequency.
 With a shorted line, if the line length is less than one-
quarter wavelength at the operating frequency, the
shorted line looks like an inductor to the generator.
 If the shorted line is between one-quarter and one-half
wavelength, it looks like a capacitor to the generator.
 These conditions repeat with multiple one-quarter or
one-half wavelengths of shorted line.

as Circuit Elements
Resonant Circuits and Reactive Components
 With an open line, a one-quarter wavelength line looks
like a series resonant circuit to the generator, and a
one-half wavelength line looks like a parallel resonant
circuit, just the opposite of a shorted line.
 If the line is less than one-quarter wavelength, the
generator sees a capacitance.
 If the line is between one-quarter and one-half
wavelength, the generator sees an inductance.
 These characteristics repeat for lines that are some
multiple of one-quarter or one-half wavelengths.

as Circuit Elements
Figure 13-25: Summary of impedance and reactance variations of shorted and open
lines for lengths up to one wavelength.
as Circuit Elements
Stripline and Microstrip
 Special transmission lines constructed with copper
patterns on a printed circuit board (PCB), called
microstrip or stripline, can be used as tuned circuits,
filters, phase shifters, reactive components, and
impedance-matching circuits at high frequencies.

as Circuit Elements
 Microstrip is a flat conductor separated by an
insulating dielectric from a large conducting ground
plane.
 The microstrip is usually a quarter or half wavelength
long.
 The ground plane is the circuit common and is
equivalent to an unbalanced line.
 The characteristic impedance of microstrip is dependent
on its physical characteristics.

as Circuit Elements
Figure 13-26: Microstrip. (a) Unbalanced. (b) Balanced.

as Circuit Elements
 Stripline is a flat conductor sandwiched between two
ground planes.
 It is more difficult to make than microstrip; however, it
does not radiate as microstrip does.
 The length is one-quarter or one-half wavelength at the
desired operating frequency.
 Shorted lines are more commonly used than open lines.

as Circuit Elements
Figure 13-28: Stripline.

13-4: The Smith Chart
 The mathematics required to design and analyze
transmission lines is complex, whether the line is a
physical cable connecting a transceiver to an antenna
or is being used as a filter or impedance-matching
network.
 This is because the impedances involved are complex
ones, involving both resistive and reactive elements.
 The impedances are in the familiar rectangular form, R
+ jX.

 The Smith Chart is a sophisticated graph that permits
visual solutions to transmission line calculations.
 Despite the availability of the computing options today,
this format provides a more or less standardized way
of viewing and solving transmission-line and related
problems.

 The horizontal axis is the pure resistance or zero-
reactance line.
 The point at the far left end of the line represents zero
resistance, and the point at the far right represents
infinite resistance. The resistance circles are centered
on and pass through this pure resistance line.
 The circles are all tangent to one another at the infinite
resistance point, and the centers of all the circles fall
on the resistance line.

 Any point on the outer circle represents a resistance of
0 Ω.
 The R = 1 circle passes through the exact center of
the resistance line and is known as the prime center.
 Values of pure resistance and the characteristic
impedance of transmission line are plotted on this line.
 The linear scales printed at the bottom of Smith charts
are used to find the SWR, dB loss, and reflection
coefficient.

Figure 13-30: The Smith chart.


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Principles of Electronic

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Figure 13-2: (a) Balanced line. (b) Unbalanced line.

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Figure 13-7: RCA (Radio Corporation of America ) phonograph connectors are

Figure 13-8: N-type (Paul Neill of Bell Labs) coaxial connector.

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A 50-ft length of this line would a delay of

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Figure 13-15: How a pulse propagates along a transmission line.

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Vector quantity representing the ration of

Vref Iref SWR  1

V max Vinc  Vref 1  

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Mismatched Load Mismatched Load

2. AT /2 LINE LENGTH

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(a) the SWR

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For a given length of coaxial cable with

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Calculate the characteristic impedance at a frequency

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