Centrifugal Pump Course

Dec-01 to Dec.03, 2003, Jubail Intercontinental

Hotel, Al-Jubail, K.S.A
under the auspices of
The Arabian Petrochemical Company,
PETROKEMYA (SABIC Affiliate)

Prepared & Presented By:

Syed Ali Hussain,
Maintenance Reliability Group,
 Contents

 Why we require pump?

 General Types of pumps
Dynamic, Positive displacement types.
 What is Centrifugal?
Working principle of Centrifugal pump
 General Components of centrifugal pump
 Stationary components Casings, seals, nozzles. Bearing housings etc.
 Rotating components
 Impeller
 Specific Speed and Impeller profile
 Shaft and shaft sleeve
 Coupling
 Why we require pump?
Since ages man think of transferring the liquid
from the lower surface level to Higher surface
level. The need to transfer water from an area of
lower level to area of Higher level give birth to
develop some mechanical device to fulfill the
requirement. Pump was one of the outcome of
the thought processes of the old scientists and
technologists. Present day pumps are used to
transfer liquid from a lower level to higher level
by consuming some energy provided by the
driver.
 General Types of Pumps

Generally there are two types of pumps.

 Positive Displacement.
 Kinetic
Positive Displacement:
The fluid is forced to move because it is
displaced with some piston, vane, screw
or roller. Positive Displacement pumps act
to force water into a system
regardless of the hindrance which may oppose
the transfer
Dynamic:
The pump moves with some speed and adds
energy to the liquid thus increasing the
pressure of the liquid and consequently the
fluid is transferred.

We are discussing centrifugal pump which lies

under this heading. The centrifugal pump is
sub class of Dynamic pump
 What is Centrifugal ?
Centrifugal is a term pertaining to direction of
the force. This is a force which moves or tends
to move away from the center of a circle.
Centrifugal force is the force of spinning.
In the case of centrifugal pumps the liquid is
entered at the eye of an impeller and is passes
through the periphery of the impeller. This
increases both the pressure and velocity of the
liquid being pumped. When the liquid leaves the
outer periphery of impeller, there is continuous
increasing area at the volute which converts the
the velocity of the fluid into pressure energy and
thus at the discharge nozzle of the pump, we
get high pressure.

There are energy conversions in Centrifugal

pump operation. The mechanical energy from
the driver (Electric motor, turbine, engine) is
converted into Velocity or Kinetic energy; the
velocity is converted into pressure (potential
Energy). The pump is also known as Velocity
machine.
 General Components of
Centrifugal Pumps
A centrifugal pump has two main components:
 A rotating component comprised of an impeller and a
shaft
 A stationary component comprised of a casing, casing
cover, and bearings.
The general components, both stationary and rotary, are
depicted in Figure. The main components are discussed
in brief below. The next figure shows these parts on a
photograph of a pump in the field.
 Stationary Components
 Casing
Casings are generally of two types: volute and
circular. The impellers are fitted inside the casings.

1. Volute casings build a higher head; circular

casings are used for low head and high
capacity.
A volute is a curved funnel increasing in area to the
discharge port as shown in Figure. As the area of the
cross-section increases, the volute reduces the speed of
the liquid and increases the pressure of the liquid.
 One of the main purposes of a volute casing is to help
balance the hydraulic pressure on the shaft of the
pump. However, this occurs best at the manufacturer's
recommended capacity. Running volute-style pumps at
a lower capacity than the manufacturer recommends
can put lateral stress on the shaft of the pump,
increasing wear-and-tear on the seals and bearings,
and on the shaft itself. Double-volute casings are used
when the radial thrusts become significant at reduced
capacities.
2. Circular casing have stationary diffusion vanes
surrounding the impeller periphery that convert
velocity energy to pressure energy. Conventionally,
the diffusers are applied to multi-stage pumps.
 The casings can be designed either as solid casings or
split casings. Solid casing implies a design in which the
entire casing including the discharge nozzle is all
contained in one casting or fabricated piece. A split
casing implies two or more parts are fastened together.
When the casing parts are divided by horizontal plane,
the casing is described as horizontally split or axially split
casing. When the split is in a vertical plane perpendicular
to the rotation axis, the casing is described as vertically
split or radially split casing. Casing Wear rings act as the
seal between the casing and the impeller.
Suction and Discharge Nozzle
The suction and discharge nozzles are part of the casings
itself. They commonly have the following configurations.
1. End suction/Top discharge - The suction nozzle is
located at the end of, and concentric to, the shaft while the
discharge nozzle is located at the top of the case
perpendicular to the shaft. This pump is always of an
overhung type and typically has lower NPSHr because the
liquid feeds directly into the impeller eye.
2. Top suction Top discharge nozzle -The suction and
discharge nozzles are located at the top of the case
perpendicular to the shaft. This pump can either be an
overhung type or between-bearing type but is always a
radially split case pump.
 3. Side suction / Side discharge nozzles - The suction
and discharge nozzles are located at the sides of the case
perpendicular to the shaft. This pump can have either an
axially or radially split case type.
 Seal Chamber and Stuffing Box
Seal chamber and Stuffing box both refer to a chamber, either
integral with or separate from the pump case housing that
forms the region between the shaft and casing where sealing
media are installed. When the sealing is achieved by means
of a mechanical seal, the chamber is commonly referred to as
a Seal Chamber. When the sealing is achieved by means of
packing, the chamber is referred to as a Stuffing Box. Both
the seal chamber and the stuffing box have the primary
function of protecting the pump against leakage at the point
where the shaft passes out through the pump pressure
casing.
When the pressure at the bottom of the chamber is below
atmospheric, it prevents air leakage into the pump. When the
pressure is above atmospheric, the chambers prevent liquid
leakage out of the pump. The seal chambers and stuffing
boxes are also provided with cooling or heating arrangement
for proper temperature control. Figure below depicts an
externally mounted seal chamber and its parts.
 Gland: The gland is a very important part of the seal
chamber or the stuffing box. It gives the packing or the
mechanical seal the desired fit on the shaft sleeve. It
can be easily adjusted in axial direction. The gland
comprises of the seal flush, quench, cooling, drain, and
vent connection ports as per the standard codes like API
682.
 Throat Bushing: The bottom or inside end of the
chamber is provided with a stationary device called
throat bushing that forms a restrictive close clearance
around the sleeve (or shaft) between the seal and the
impeller.
 Throttle bushing refers to a device that forms a
restrictive close clearance around the sleeve (or shaft) at
the outboard end of a mechanical seal gland.
  Internal circulating device refers to device located in
the seal chamber to circulate seal chamber fluid through
a cooler or barrier/buffer fluid reservoir. Usually it is
referred to as a pumping ring.
 Mechanical Seal: For sealing of the pump.

Bearing housing
The bearing housing encloses the bearings mounted on the
shaft. The bearings keep the shaft or rotor in correct
alignment with the stationary parts under the action of radial
and transverse loads. The bearing house also includes an oil
reservoir for lubrication, constant level oiler, jacket for
cooling by circulating cooling water.
 Rotating Components
 Impeller
The impeller is the main rotating part that provides the
centrifugal acceleration to the fluid. They are often
classified in many ways.
Based on major direction of flow in reference to the axis of
rotation
 Radial flow
 Axial flow
 Mixed flow
Based on suction type
 Single-suction: Liquid inlet on one side.
 Double-suction: Liquid inlet to the impeller
symmetrically from both sides.
Based on mechanical construction (See Figure)
 Closed: Shrouds or sidewall enclosing the vanes.

 Open: No shrouds or wall to enclose the vanes.

 Semi-open or vortex type.

 Specific Speed
“Specific Speed” is expressed as:
NS= NQ1/2/H3/4
Where N: rpm, Q: capacity (gpm), H: head (ft)
Specific speed may be further defined as the revolutions
per minute at which geometrically similar impellers
would run if they were of such size as to discharge one
gallon per minute against a one-foot head. The physical
meaning of specific speed has no particular value, being
a dimensionless number, largely used as “type” number.
It is a constant for all similar pumps and does not
change with the speed of the same pump. The specific
speed determines the general shape or class of impeller.
As the specific speed increases, the ratio of the impeller
outlet diameter, D2, to the inlet or eye diameter, D1,
decreases. This ration becomes 1.0 for a true axial flow
impeller.
Radial flow impellers develop head principally through
centrifugal force. Pumps of higher specific speed develop
head partly by centrifugal force and partly by axial force. A
higher specific speed indicates a pump design with head
generation more by axial forces and less by centrifugal
forces. An axial flow or propeller pump generates its head
exclusively through axial forces. Radial impellers are
generally low-flow, high-head design, where axial flow
impellers are high-flow, low-head designs.
Increased speeds without proper suction conditions often
cause serious problems from vibration, noise, and pitting.
Closed impellers require wear rings and these wear rings
present another maintenance problem. Open and semi-
open impellers are less likely to clog, but need manual
adjustment to the volute or back-plate to get the proper
impeller setting and prevent internal re-circulation.
Vortex pump impellers are great for solids and "stringy"
materials but they are up to 50% less efficient than
conventional designs. The number of impellers
determines the number of stages of the pump. A single
stage pump has one impeller only and is best for low
head service. A two-stage pump has two impellers in
series for medium head service. A multi-stage pump has
three or more impellers in series for high head service.
 Wear rings: Wear ring provides an easily and
economically renewable leakage joint between the
impeller and the casing. clearance becomes too large
the pump efficiency will be lowered causing heat and
vibration problems. Most manufacturers require that
you disassemble the pump to check the wear ring
clearance and replace the rings when this clearance
doubles.
 Shaft

The basic purpose of a centrifugal pump shaft is to

transmit the torques encountered when starting and
during operation while supporting the impeller and
other rotating parts. It must do this job with a
deflection less than the minimum clearance between
the rotating and stationary parts.
 Shaft Sleeve Pump shafts are usually protected from
erosion, corrosion, and wear at the seal chambers,
leakage joints, internal bearings, and in the
waterways by renewable sleeves. Unless otherwise
specified, a shaft sleeve of wear, corrosion,
and erosion-resistant material shall be provided to protect
the shaft . The sleeve shall be sealed at one end. The
shaft sleeve assembly shall extend beyond the outer face
of the seal gland plate. (Leakage between the shaft and
the sleeve should not be confused with leakage through
the mechanical seal).
Coupling: Couplings can compensate for axial growth of
the shaft and transmit torque to the impeller. Shaft couplings
can be broadly classified into two groups: rigid and flexible.
Rigid couplings are used in applications where there is
absolutely no possibility or room for any misalignment.
Flexible shaft couplings are more prone to selection,
installation and maintenance errors. Flexible shaft couplings
can be divided into two basic groups: elastomeric and non-
elastomeric
Elastomeric couplings use either rubber or polymer elements
to achieve flexibility. These elements can either be in shear
or in compression. Tire and rubber sleeve designs are
elastomer in shear couplings; jaw and pin and bushing
designs are elastomer in compression couplings.
  Non-elastomeric couplings use metallic elements to
obtain flexibility. These can be one of two types:
lubricated or non-lubricated. Lubricated designs
accommodate misalignment by the sliding action
of their components, hence the need for
lubrication. The non-lubricated designs
accommodate misalignment through flexing. Gear,
grid and chain couplings are examples of non-
elastomeric, lubricated couplings. Disc and
diaphragm couplings are non-elastomeric and non-
lubricated.

 Auxiliary Components
Auxiliary components generally include the following piping
systems for the following services:
 Seal flushing , cooling , quenching systems
 Seal drains and vents
 Bearing lubrication , cooling systems
 Seal chamber or stuffing box cooling, heating systems
 Pump pedestal cooling systems
 Auxiliary piping systems include tubing, piping, isolating
valves, control valves, relief valves, temperature gauges and
thermocouples, pressure gauges, sight flow indicators,
orifices, seal flush coolers, dual seal barrier/buffer fluid
reservoirs, and all related vents and drains.
 All auxiliary components shall comply with the requirements
as per standard codes like API 610 (refinery services), API
682 (shaft sealing systems) etc.
 Contents
 Pressure and Head
 Absolute pressure
 Specific Gravity
 Head and pressure conversion formula
 Suction Head, Discharge Head, Total head
 Vapor pressure and NPSH
 NPSH, NPSHA, NPSHR
 NPSH problems and cavitation
 NPSH Calculation.
 Cavitation characteristics
 Pressure and Head
Pressure is force acting on a unit of area. It is
expressed in Pounds/square inch or Newton/
square meter.
Head is the height of the liquid.
Atmospheric Pressure

Liquid Pressure

10 psig
The gauge is showing a pressure of 10 psig. This is gauge
pressure and is not including the Atmospheric pressure
which is 14.7 psi.
Absolute pressure:
Absolute pressure=Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
Absolute pressure of the tank shown in the previous slide is
10+14.7=24.7 psia.
Absolute pressure will always be greater than Gauge
pressure.
A 10 feet of water exerts a pressure of 4.33 psig. A
100 feet of water column exerts a pressure of
43.3 psig. Dividing 4.33/10 and 43.3/100, we
see that for each 1 foot of water 0.433 psig
pressure is exerted.

43.3
4.33
psig 100 feet
psig

10 feet
Specific Gravity is the weight of the substance divided by
the weight of the same volume of water. The specific
gravity of water is 1. A liquid having a specific gravity of
less than 1 will weigh less than water for an equal
amount. If the weight is less then the force exerted will
also be less and hence for an equivalent height the head
of the liquid having a Sp. Gravity of less than 1 will be
lower than that of water.
The formula for converting Head into pressure is

Head=Presssure/sp.gravity.0.433

Suppose the gauge is showing a pressure of 30 psig for a

liquid with Sp. Gravity of 0.7. The head will be
30/0.7.0.433=98.9 feet.
Suction Head is the sum of the pressure changed to head, plus
the velocity changed to head, at the inlet of the pump.
Discharge Head is the pressure at the discharge changed to
head.
Total Head is the discharge head minus Suction head. It is the
actual distance pump pushed the liquid at the expense of
energy.
Reference for height measurement is the pump centerline.
Total head can be estimated by measuring the heights at the
suction and discharge tanks and subtracting these heads or
by reading the pressure gauges at the suction and discharge
and converting them to head measurement and subtracting
them.
For a suction lift system Suction lift is added to the discharge
head to calculate the Total Head.
 Total Discharge
Head

Suction Discharge Head

Head

Total Head Discharge Head

Suction Lift

Suction Lift System

 Vapor Pressure and Net Positive
Suction Head (NPSH)
Vapor Pressure is the Pressure at which the liquid will
transform into vapor at a given temperature. Vapor
pressure is a function of temperature.
Understanding the phenomenon, when the Absolute
suction pressure is not high enough. Liquids vaporize or
evaporate at the pump suction. In a liquid the vapors
exert a pressure before they escape. Vapor pressure is
the pressure of the vapor that is trapped in the liquid.
Vapor pressure causes the liquid to vaporize or
evaporate. Heating a liquid increases the its vapor
pressure. To keep the liquid at the pump from
vaporizing, the absolute suction pressure must be higher
than the Vapor pressure at the given temperature.
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is a common
term used in Centrifugal pumps. It can only be
understand by understanding the terms NPSH available
and NPSH required.
NPSH (available) is the energy level expressed in terms
of liquid height at the suction flange of the centrifugal
pump, with the liquid vapor pressure as its datum. Or
It is the difference between Total suction head and vapor
pressure of the liquid in feet of liquid, at the suction
flange.
It can be attained by subtracting all the losses like
entrance losses, losses through fittings, elbows,
strainers etc. and the vapor pressure from the Absolute
Suction head.
NPSH available is specified by the user of the pump.
NPSH (required) is the minimum head required needed at
the suction of a pump to enter the impeller without
vaporizing. Or
The reduction in total head as the liquid enters the
Pump. NPSH required is determined by the Pump
manufacturer.
It is worth to know that why NPSH available is related to
Vapor pressure. The impeller imparts energy to the liquid only
in liquid form. From the model on the next slide shows that
there will be some loss of energy when the liquid will travel
from the suction flange to the impeller eye, where it meets
the impeller vanes. Therefore head (pressure) at the vane tip
is less than the head (pressure) available at the suction
flange. As soon as the static head in the area between suction
flange and the vane tip reaches vapor pressures, the liquid
starts vaporizing. NPSH A is therefore related to Vapor
pressure at its pumping temperature; indicates how much
energy is available for the passage from suction flange to
leading edge of the impeller vanes.
 E

A B C D

Entrance loss Friction Turbulence Increasing

friction, pressure due to
Entrance impeller
loss at
Point of
vane tip Lowest
INCREASING
PRESSURE
pressure
where
Vaporizat
ion starts

A B C D E

Relative Pressures in the Entrance section of a pump

As long as the actual energy loss, NPSH R remains less
than NPSH A the total head will exceeds the vapor
pressure , which guarantees that the pumpage will
remain liquid during its travel.
NPSH R varies as the square of the proportionate speed
increase. In general standard centrifugal pump will not
perform well if gas entrainment exceeds 1%.
The mandatory margin between NPSH A and NPSH R is
usually 1 foot.
 NPSH Problems and Cavitation
If NPSH A is not greater than NPSH R, there will be a
marked reduction in Head or Capacity or even a
complete failure to operate. Excessive vibrations may
take place when there is vapor passing through the
impeller. Cavitation will take place which results in Pitting
and erosion of the impeller.
Cavitation is a phenomenon in which bubbles will form
if, during liquid flow its static head becomes lower than
its vapor pressure at the prevailing temperature. As soon
as energy input causes the pressure to become greater
than the vapor pressure the bubbles will suddenly
collapse or implode. As the vapor collapse, the adjacent
walls are subjected to a tremendous shock from the in
rush of liquid into the cavity left by the bubble. This
shock actually flakes off small bits of metal and the parts
Take on the appearance of having been badly eroded.
This erosion shows up not at the point of lowest
pressure where the bubble is formed, but further down
stream where the bubble collapses. The most sensitive
areas usually are the low pressure sides of the impeller
vanes near the inlet edge and the front shroud where
the curvature is greatest.
A standard method to observe and judge cavitation on
the test stand or in the field is to hold the speed
constant and reduce the suction pressure at various
capacities. A 3% drop in discharge pressure is
considered evidence of cavitation. It is plotted in the
Head capacity curve and it is determined as the NPSH R
of the pump. More explanation is given in coming slides.
 NPSH Calculation

Pt

Ps
+Z

+Zps

-Zps

Pump
centerline
-Z
Pt Ps
The formula includes the following abbreviations and signs
which are as follow.
Pa= Absolute pressure in atmosphere surrounding gage.
Ps= Gage pressure at the suction may be negative or
positive according to the arrangement.
Pt= Absolute pressure on free surface of liquid in the
closed tank connected to the pump suction.
Pvp= Vapor pressure of the liquid being pumped.
hf= Lost head due to friction.
V = Average velocity
Z = Vertical distances may be positive or negative
depending upon the arrangement.
W = Specific weight of liquid at pumping temperature.
The formula is as follows.
NPSH available = (Pa-Pvp) / w +Ps/w + Zps =V2 /2g
Or
NPSH available = (Pt-Pvp) /w +Z –hf

Cavitation characteristics of a centrifugal pump is to

cause a break down in the normal Head Capacity curves.
This is done by holding the speed and suction pressure
constant and varying the capacity, or by holding the speed
constant and reducing the suction pressure at various
capacities. Either of these methods will produce a
breakdown in the Head characteristics as shown. The
Hydraulic Institute has permitted a drop in head of 3% to
be accepted as evidence that cavitation is present under
test conditions. It is recommended to operate the pump
above the break away sigma if noise and vibrations are to
be avoided.
 Normal Q-H curve

% Head
Normal

Break Away

% Capacity Normal
 Contents
 Pump performance Characteristic Curves
 Head, Capacity, BHP, Efficiency, B.E.P
 Affinity Laws
PUMP PERFORMANCE; CHARACTERISTIC
CURVES
The performance characteristics of a centrifugal pump
are clearly defined by its performance curves. They are
also known as Head Capacity curve or simply Q-H
curves. Prior to discuss the characteristic curves,
following terms are to be familiarized in order to get a
clear idea.
Capacity is the volume of liquid per unit time delivered
by the pump. It is denoted by Q and the units are
gallons/minute or gpm, m3 /sec.
Head is sum of the gauge pressure head and the
velocity head at the discharge flange minus the sum of
corresponding heads at the suction flange equals the
energy in foot-pounds added per pound of liquid
pumped and is called Total head developed by the pump.
It is expressed in feet or meters and is usually denoted
by H.
BHP is the Horse power required by the pump for any
flow rate of the liquid with a specific gravity of 1.0. It is
denoted as
BHP= QH(Sp.gravity)/3960. In SI Power units are Watt
and is given by P=9797QH(Sp.gravity) when Q is in m3
/sec and Head is in meters
NPSH is the Net Positive suction head required at some
particular flow rate. The explanation is given in previous
slides. The unit is feet or meters.
Efficiency is equal to the rate at which imparts energy to
the liquid, divided by the rate at which the pump
requires energy. It is denoted in percentage. The
formula is as follow.
Efficiency= QH. Specific Gravity/3960.hp X 100
From the performance curves some general principles
are set which help us in making the basic concept of
Centrifugal pump performance.
When the Total Head decreases, the pump capacity
increases except at very low capacity.
As the level of suction head is dropped Total Head will
increase resulting in decreasing the capacity.
Power requirement increases with increasing the flow rate.
NPSH requirement increases with the flow rate.
The efficiency is relatively low at high and low flow rates.
Best Efficiency Point (B.E.P) is the point on the curve at
which the pump operation is most efficient and therefore
most economical.
By pinching the Discharge valve of the pump, the capacity
decreases and so the NPSH requirement and
correspondingly the Head increases.
 Shut off
head
Total B.E.P
Head NPSH
Total NPSH

Head
in

Efficiency
Efficiency

Horse
Power
Horse
Power

Capacity Q
The head produced by the pump is limited to that which is
developed at shut off (zero capacity). Even if there is
blockage in the discharge line the pressure will not exceed the
shut off value. Correspondingly the pump driver will not be
overloaded as the horsepower required will be decreasing as
the flow is throttled back.
 AFFINITY LAWS

Any machine, which imparts velocity and converts

velocity to pressure, can be categorized by a set of
relationships, which apply to any dynamic conditions.
These relationships are referred to as the “Affinity
Laws”. They can be described as similarity processes,
which follow the following rules:

 Capacity varies as the rotating speed – that is, the

peripheral velocity of the impeller.
 Head varies as the square of the rotating speed
 BHP varies as the cube of the rotating speed.

The affinity laws apply to centrifugal gas compressors

as well as to centrifugal pumps, but are most distinctly
 useful for estimating pumps performance at different
rotating speeds, or impeller diameters starting with
pumps with known characteristics.
The basic variations can be analyzed by these
relationships:
1 - By changing speed and maintaining constant impeller
diameter, pump efficiency will remain the same, but
head, capacity, and BHP will vary according to the Laws.
2 - By changing impeller diameter, but maintaining
constant speed the pump efficiency for a diffuser pump
will not be affected if the impeller diameter is not
changed by more than five percent. Note that the
change in efficiency will occur if the impeller size is
reduced sufficiently to affect the clearances between the
casing and the periphery of the impeller.
However, the head, capacity and BHP will vary as follows:

Parameter Variation 1 Variation 2

1. With impeller 2. With speed, N, held

diameter, D, held constant
constant
Capacity A. Q1/Q2 = N1/N2. A. QI/Q2 = D1/D2

Head B. H1/H2= (N1/N2)2 B. H1/H2 =(DI/D2)2

 Parameter Variation 1 Variation 2
Brake Horsepower C.BHP1/BHP2=(N1/N2)3 C.BHP1/BHP2=(D1/D2)3

Where Q = Capacity, gpm

H = Total Head, Feet
BHP = Brake Horsepower
N = Pump Speed, rpm
 These relationships may be manipulated in any
mathematically valid way. The common denominator
being a speed change, the relationships may be
complied as follows:

 Q2 = (N2/N1).Q1 (4)
 H2 = (N2/N1)2 H1 (5)
 P2 = (N2/N1)3 P1 (6)
 Contents

 Pump operation
 Discharge recirculation
 Minimum flow control
 Effect of viscosity on pump performance
 Parallel and Series operation
 Capacity regulation
 PUMP OPERATION.
We will discuss different Terms which are frequently
used in Today's Industry as far as Centrifugal pump
jargon is concerned.
 Internal Recirculation.
 Effect of Pump performance due to Viscosity.
 Minimum Flow
 Capacity Regulation
 Parallel and Series Operation.
Internal Recirculation
There is a small flow from Impeller Discharge to Suction
through the wearing rings. This takes place at all the
capacities but does not usually contribute in raising the
temperature of the liquid being pumped unless operation
is near shut off.
When the capacity is reduced by throttling a secondary
flow reversal at the suction or discharge tip of the
impeller vanes occur. Suction recirculation is the
reversal of flow at the impeller eye and travel upstream
with a rotational velocity approaching the peripheral
velocity of the diameter. A rotating annulus is formed
and hence this annulus moves upstream from the
impeller inlet and through the core of the annulus an
axial flow is produced. Shearing between annulus and
the axial flow through the core produces vortices which
form and collapse, producing noise and cavitation at the
suction side of the pump.
Guide vanes may show cavitation damage from the
impingement of the back flow from the impeller eye in
Suction recirculation.
Discharge Recirculation is the reversal of flow at the
Discharge tip of the impeller vanes. The high shear rate
between the inward and outward relative velocities
produces vortices that cavitate and usually attack the
pressure side of the vanes.
The tongue or diffuser vanes may show cavitation
damage on the impeller side from operation in discharge
recirculation.
Suction Discharge
Recirculation Recirculation
Viscosity and effect on pump design and operation
There are some significant differences in pump behavior,
and system response, when pumping fluid other than
water. One of the major factors is viscosity. This is a
characteristic of all fluids, including water, different for
each fluid. It is of course obvious that fluids differ from
solids; it is not so obvious that fluids can approach solids
so that a distinction may be blurred.
Effect on Pump Installation
The viscosity of the liquid is a very important factor in the
selection of a pump. It is the determining factor in
frictional head, motor size required and speed reduction
necessary. Frequently, for high viscosity liquids, it is
more economical to use a large pump operating at a
reduced speed since the original higher total installation
cost is more that offset by reduced maintenance and
subsequent longer life of the unit.
Effect of viscosity on performance
Liquids of high viscosity offer more resistance to flow
than water. This increased friction occurs both in the
piping and in the pump itself. More energy is required to
force the liquid through the flow passages in the pump
casing and through the pump impeller. The disc friction
of the impeller; that is, the resistance of the liquid to the
rotation of the impeller, is greater when pumping a high
viscosity liquid. These friction losses within the pump
result in the pump generating a lower head and reduce
the volume of liquid handled by the pump. These losses
also result in a lowering of the pump efficiency and an
increase in the brake horsepower requirements.
The reduction in head, capacity, and efficiency and the
increase in horsepower requirements of a pump handling a
viscous liquid depend to a large extent on the type pump,
the design of the passages inside the pump, the design of
the impeller, the size of the pump, the capacity of the pump
and the pump speed.
The following equation are used for determining the viscous
performance when the water performance of the pump is
known:
Qvis = CQ X Qw
Hvis = CH X Hw
E vis = CE X Ew
bhp vis = QviS X Hvis X sp. gr. / 3960 X E vis
CQ, CH and CE are determined from graphs, which are
based water performances
The following equations are used for approximating the water
performance when the desired viscous capacity and head
are given and the values of CQ and CH must be estimated
form graph using QviS and Hvis, as:
Qs (approx.) = Qvis / CQ
Hw (approx.) = Hvis/ CH
MINIMUM FLOW CONTROL
Although a constant – speed centrifugal pump will operate
over a wide range of capacities, it will encounter difficulty at
low flow. In general, low-flow problems are worse for large
high – energy pumps, for pumps handling hot or abrasives –
laden liquids, for pumps designed for high efficiency at best
efficiency point (BEP), and for pumps for low net positive
suction head (NPSH).
Source of trouble at reduced flow
The sources of the pump’s distress are fourfold – thermal,
hydraulic, mechanical, and abrasive wear.
Thermal
Inescapable energy conversion loss in the pump warns the
liquid.
Hydraulic
When flow decreases far enough, the impeller encounters
suction or discharge recirculation, or perhaps both. Flashing,
cavitations, and shock occur, often with vibration and
serious damage.
Mechanical
Both constant and fluctuating loads in the radial and
axial directions increase as pump capacity falls.
Bearing damage, shaft and impeller breakage, and
rubbing wear on casing, impeller, and wear rings can
occur.
Axial-flow and mixed-flow pumps with high specific speed
give comparatively higher head and take comparatively
more power at low flow. A bypass system may be
necessary not only to reduce stress but also to prevent
motor overload.
Abrasive wear
Liquids containing a large amount of abrasive particles,
such as sand or ash, must flow continuously through the
pump. If flow decreases, the particles can circulate inside
the pump passage and quickly erode the impeller, casing, and even
wear rings and shaft.
FACTORS IN DESIGN OF A MINIMUM FLOW
CONTROL SYSTEM
Pump size
Higher capacity, brake power, specific speed, and suction
specific speed all tend to make a minimum flow control
system difficult to design and costly to build and
operate.
Discharge Pressure
High discharge pressures mean high head loss in bypass
lines. Liquids that can flash and cavitate demand special
precautions in valving, orifices, and piping.
Available heat sink
By pass flow must go far enough upstream to prevent
progressive temperature buildup or flow disturbance in the
pump suction. This may mean a simple discharge back to
an un insulated inlet line or discharge to a receiving tank or
cooler with enough area and enough inflow of cool liquid to
handle the thermal load. Bypass flow can discharge into a
de-aerator storage tank, a condenser, a flash tank, or a
cooling pond. Altitude, distance, and pressure inside the
receiving tank are also factors, as is the fact that the interior
must be available for inspection and for repair of spray or
distribution pipes and orifices.
Continuous bypass system
Figure illustrates a simple system, with a bypass line
branching off the pump discharge upstream of the main line
check valve and containing a fixed orifice dimensioned by
analysis to provide minimum required pump flow.
RECEIVING TANK

ORIFICE

BY PASS
SHUT OFF
LINE
VALVE

CHECK
VALVE SHUT OFF
SHUT OFF PUMP
VALVE VALVE

CONTINUOUS BY PASS OPERATION

The bypass receiving tank must be at a lower pressure than
pump discharge and may be the pump suction source or
some other vessel than will return the liquid to the pump (if it
is not to be wasted). Locating the bypass branch off before
the discharge check valve as shown keeps backflow from
process or flow from a parallel operating pump from going
back to the receiving tank or back through the pump during
a pump shutdown.
The choice of size for the bypass pipe depends on flow,
equivalent line length, and how close the liquid temperature
is to the boiling point. If the pressure breakdown after the
orifice results in flashing flow, the orifice should discharge
into the larger receiving tank. In that case, eliminate the
shutoff valve downstream of the bypass.
On – off bypass of minimum flow
In figure a bypass line runs to a below – surface spray pipe
in an overhead pressurized receiver. For low bypass flows
and low heads of cool water, the on-off valve maybe single-
stage. Control is simple, with a dead band of 2 to 5 % of
design – point delivery. The meter, downstream of the
bypass branch off, serves system control functions. Bypass
piping is full of water, eliminating the danger of a sudden
impact of a water slug on the orifice.
Should the bypass piping discharge above the water level in
the receiving tank, a check valve in this line is advisable.
Without a check valve, the water in the bypass piping will
drain back through an idle pump to the level in the receiving
tank, if this is the suction source. When the pump is started,
water slugging could occur in the empty portion of the pipe
and fittings.
 RECEIVING TANK

ORIFICE ON OFF CONTROL VALVE

CONTROL

SHUT OFF
SPRAY PIPE VALVE

CHECK
VALVE SHUT OFF
SHUT OFF PUMP METERING
VALVE VALVE ORIFICE

ON OFF BY PASS OPERATION

Automatic Bypass Control System
A single element that combines the pump check valves, pipe
tee, pressure – reducing orifice, flow meter, and control
valve can be an on-off or modulating bypass control, as in
figure lift check acts as a flow meter. This opens and
closes a pilot valve, which operates, and integral – control
pressure – reducing valve. The element is self-powered,
requiring no external source of electricity or air, and is
designed to be fail-safe. The highest-pressure drops can be
handled with commercially available systems. They system
design must suit the pump characteristics.
As in other bypass system, protection is necessary to
prevent flashing in the piping down steam of the control
element. A fixed orifice for on-off control or a variable
orifice for modulating control is needed at the end of the
bypass line and at the receiving tank wall. No anti flash
orifice is required if the automatic control is at the end of
the bypass line.
RECEIVING TANK

AUTOMATIC
BYPASS
ASSEMBLY
SHUT OFF
VALVE

SHUT OFF PUMP SHUT OFF

VALVE VALVE

AUTOMATIC BY PASS OPERATION

 CAPACITY REGULATION

CAPACITY REGULATION
Capacity variation ordinarily is accomplished by a change
in pump head, speed, or both simultaneously. The
capacity and power input of pumps with specific speeds
up to about 4000 increase with deceasing head, so that
the drivers of such pumps may be overloaded if the head
falls below a safe minimum value. Increasing the head of
high – specific speed pumps decreases the capacity but
increases the power input. The drivers of these pumps
should either be able to meet possible load increases or be
equipped with suitable over load protection. Capacity
regulation by the various methods given below may be
manual or automatic.
Discharge Throttling:
This is the cheapest and most common method of capacity
modulation for low and medium-specific speed pumps.
Usually its use is restricted to such pumps. Partial closure of
any type of valve in the discharge line will increase the
system head so that the
system-head curve will intersect the head capacity curve at a
smaller capacity. Discharge throttling moves the operating
point to one of lower efficiency, and power is lost at the
throttle valve. This may be important in large installations,
where more costly methods of modulation may be
economically attractive. Throttling to the point of shutoff
may cause excessive heating of the liquid in the pump. This
may require a bypass to maintain the
necessary minimum flow or use of different method of
modulation. This is particularly important with pumps
handling hot water or volatile liquids, as previously
mentioned.
Suction Throttling
If sufficient NPSH is available, some power can be saved
by throttling in the suction line. Jet engine fuel pumps
frequently are suction throttled because discharge
throttling may cause overheating and vaporization of the
liquid. At very low capacity, the impellers of these
pumps are only partly filled with liquid, so that the
power input and temperature rise are about one-third
the values for impellers running full with discharge
throttling. The capacity of condensate pumps frequently
is submergence –controlled, which is equivalent to
suction throttling. Special design reduces cavitations damage
of these pumps to negligible amount.
Bypass Regulation
All or part of the pump capacity may be diverted from the
discharge line to the pump suction or other suitable point
through a bypass line. The bypass may contain one or more
metering orifices and suitable control valves. Metered
bypasses are commonly used with boiler-feed pumps for
reduced capacity operation, mainly to prevent overheating.
There is a considerable power saving if excess capacity of
propeller pumps is bypassed instead of using discharge
throttling.
Speed Regulation
This can be used to minimize power requirements and
eliminate overheating during capacity modulation.
Steam turbines and internal combustion engines are readily
adaptable to speed regulation at small extra cost. A wide
variety of variable speed mechanical, magnetic, and
hydraulic drives are available, as well as both ac and dc
variable-speed motors. Usually variable – speed motors are
so expensive that they can be justified only by an economic
study of particular case.
Regulation of Adjustable vanes
Adjustable guide vanes ahead of the impeller have been
investigated and found effective with a pump of specific
speed Ns = 5700. The vanes produced a positive pre whirl
which reduced the head, capacity, and efficiency. Relatively
little regulation was obtained from the vanes with pumps
having ns = 3920 and 1060.
Adjustable outlet diffusion vanes have been used with good
success on several large European storage pumps for
hydroelectric developments. Propeller pumps with
adjustable – pitch blades have been investigated with good
success. Wide capacity variation was obtained at constant
head and with relatively little loss in efficiency. These
methods are so complicated and expensive that they
probably will have very limited applicable in practice.
Air Admission
Admitting air into the pump suction has been demonstrated
as a means of capacity regulations, with some saving in
power over discharge throttling. Usually air in the pumped
liquid is undesirable, and there is always the danger that too
much air will cause
the pump to lose its prime. The method has rarely been used
in practice but might be applicable to isolated causes.

Parallel Operation:
Parallel operation of two or more pumps is a common
method of meeting variable – capacity requirements. By
starting only those pumps needed to meet the demand,
operation near maximum efficiency can usually be obtained.
The head – capacity characteristics of the pumps need not be
identical, but pumps with unstable characteristics may give
trouble unless operation only on the steep portion of the
characteristic can be assured. Care should be taken to see
that no one pump, when combined with pumps of different
characteristics, is forced to operate at flows less than the
minimum required preventing recirculation. Multiple pumps in
a facility provide spares for emergency service for the down
time needed for maintenance. Parallel pump operation is
beneficial where the system resistance curve is flat.
Series Operation for centrifugal pumps is carried out to
increase the head. It enforces an identical flow through
each pump where the discharge head is sum of the
heads developed by each pump.
As a general rule Series operation of pumps is beneficial
where the system resistance curve is steep.
See the curves on the next slide.
 SERIES

SERIES
OPERATION

SYSTEM
RESISTANCE PARALLEL
CURVES
H

PARALLEL
OPERATION

Q
 Centrifugal Pump Troubleshooting Guide

Pump not reaching Design Flow rate

A. Probable Cause:
Insufficient NPSH (Noise may or may not present)
Recommended Remedy:
Recalculate NPSH available. It must be greater than NPSH
required by pump at desired flow. If not:
Re-design suction piping, holding number of elbows and
number of planes to a minimum to avoid adverse fluid
rotation as it approaches the impeller.
B. Probable Cause:
System head greater than anticipated.
Recommended Remedy:
Reduce system head by increasing pipe size and/or
reducing number of fittings. Increase impeller
diameter.
C. Probable Cause:
Plugged impeller, suction line, or casing: product fibrous
or contains large size solids.
Recommended Remedy:
For fibrous material:
1. Reduce length of fiber when possible,
Consider oversized pump.
D. Probable cause:
Entrained air-leak from atmosphere on suction side.
Recommended Remedy:
1. Check suction side gaskets and threads for tightness.
2. Properly repack stuffing box.
3. Install Vortex breaker
E. Probable Cause:
Entrained gas from process.
Recommended Remedy:
Process generated gases may require a large pump.
F. Probable Cause:
Speed too low
Recommended Remedy:
Check motor speed against design speed
G. Probable cause:
Direction of rotation wrong.
Recommended Remedy:
Reverse any two of three leads on a three phase motor.
H. Probable cause.
Impeller too small.
Recommended Remedy:
Replace with proper diameter impeller.
I. Probable cause:
Impeller clearance too large
Recommended Remedy:
Reset impeller

Pump not reaching design Head (TDH)

A. Probable Cause:
Check all items under “Check all the items referred in
Pumps not reaching design flow rate.”
Recommended Remedy:
Refer to remedies listed under Problem No.1
No-Discharge or Flow- Pump Running
A. Probable Cause:
Not properly primed
Recommended Remedy:
Repeat priming operation, recheck instructions.
B. Probable Cause:
Suction lift too high.
Recommended Remedy:
1. Rearrange piping.
2. Increase Suction head if possible.
3. Determine if larger impeller would be better.
4. Select new pump to handle higher suction lift.
C.Probable Cause
Impeller, Suction line, or casing is plugged.
.
Recommended Remedy:
For fibrous materials:
1. Reduce length of fiber when possible.
2. Consider oversized pump
D. Probable cause:
Direction of rotation wrong
Recommended Remedy:
Reverse any two of three leads on a three phase motor
E. Probable cause:
Entrained air-leak from atmosphere on suction side.
Recommended remedy:
Check 1-D
Recommended Remedy:
For fibrous materials:
1. Reduce length of fiber when possible.
2. Consider oversized pump
D. Probable cause:
Direction of rotation wrong
Recommended Remedy:
Reverse any two of three leads on a three phase motor
E. Probable cause:
Entrained air-leak from atmosphere on suction side.
Recommended remedy:
Check 1-D
Pump operates for short period, then looses
prime.

A. Probable Cause:
Insufficient NPSH.
Recommended Remedy:
Recalculate NPSH available. It must be greater than
NPSH required by pump at desired flow. If not:
Re-design suction piping, holding number of elbows and
number of planes to a minimum to avoid adverse
fluid rotation as it approaches the impeller.
B. Probable cause:
Entrained air-leak from atmosphere on suction side.
Recommended remedy:
Check 1-D
Excessive Noise-Wet end
A. Probable cause:
Cavitation-Insufficient NPSH available
Recommended remedy:
Refer to remedy under 1-A.
B. Probable Cause:
Abnormal fluid rotation due to complex suction piping.
Recommended Remedy:
Re-design suction piping, holding number of elbows and
number of planes to a minimum to avoid adverse
fluid rotation as it approaches the impeller.
C. Impeller rubbing
Recommended Remedy:
1. Check and reset Impeller Clearance
2. Check out board bearing assembly for axial end play.
Excessive Noise –Power end
A. Probable cause
Overloaded bearing which is indicated by flaking or
spalling of the bearing raceways.
Recommended Remedy:
Check to be sure that actual operating conditions do not
exceed the maximum allowable suction pressure and the
maximum allowable specific gravity.
B. Probable cause:
Bearing contamination appearing on the raceways as a
scoring, pitting, scratching, or rusting caused by adverse
environment and entrance of abrasive waste materials
from atmosphere.
Recommended Remedy:
1. Work with clean tools in clean surroundings.
2. Remove all dirt from housing before exposing bearings.
3. Handle with clean dry hands
4. Use clean solvents and flushing oil.
C. Probable cause:
Brinelling of bearing identified by indentations on the ball
races, caused by improper handling during fitting.
 Recommended Remedy:
Be sure when mounting a bearing to apply the mounting
pressure slowly and evenly. Press the inner ring while
fitting the bearing on the shaft and press against outer
ring when fitting in housing.
D. Probable cause:
False brinelling of bearing identified again by either axial
or circumferential indentations usually caused by
vibration of the balls between the races in a stationary
bearing.
Recommended Remedy:
1. Correct the source of vibration.
2. Where bearings are oil lubricated and employed in units
that may be out of service for extended periods, the shaft
should be turned over periodically to re lubricate all
bearing surfaces at intervals of one to three months.
E. Probable Cause:
Thrust overload on bearing identified by flaking ball path
on one side of the outer race or in the case of maximum
capacity bearings, may appear as a spalling of the races in
the vicinity of the loading slot. These thrust failures are
caused by improper mounting of the bearing or excessive
thrust loads.
Recommended Remedy:
1. Follow correct mounting procedures for bearings.
2. Check pump literature to be sure that actual conditions do
not exceed the maximum allowable Sp. Gravity or suction
pressure limitations.
F. Probable cause:
Misalignment identified by the fracture of ball retainer or a wide
 ball path on the inner race and a narrower cocked ball path
on the outer race. Misalignment is caused by poor
mounting practices or improperly machined shafts.
Recommended remedy:
Check Housing bore dimensionally to be sure that both
bores are true with each other. Check shaft shoulders are
squared with shaft center line. Run out of the shaft is
within limits.
G. Probable cause:
Bearing damaged by electrical arcing identified as electro-
etching of both inner and outer ring as pitting or cratering.
Electrical arcing is caused by a static electric charge
emanating from belt drives, electrical leakage or short
circuiting.
Recommended Remedy:
1. Where current shunting through the bearing cannot be
corrected, a shunt in the form of a slip ring assembly
should be inorporated.
2. Check all wiring, insulation and rotor windings to be sure
that they are sound and all connections are properly
made.
3. Where pumps are belt driven, consider the elimination of
static charges by proper grounding or consider belt
material that is less generative.
H. Probable Cause:
Bearing damage due to improper lubrication, identified by
one or more of the following.
1. Abnormal bearing temperature rise.
2. A stiff cracked grease appearance.
3. A brown or bluish discoloration of the bearing race.
4. Failure of the ball retainer.
Recommended Remedy:
1. Be sure that the lubricant is clean.
2. Be sure that proper amount of lubricant is used.
3. Be sure proper grade of lubricant is used.
 About the presenter

Syed Ali Hussain is presently working as Pumps and

Blowers Engineer in Maintenance Reliability Group. He
handles Reliability improvements and trouble shootings,
condition monitoring in Pumps, blowers and their drivers
in Petrokemya. He is having eight years experience in
Rotating equipment in Process industry. He was
previously working with Pak Arab Fertilizers Pakistan as
rotating equipment engineer. He is a graduate Engineer
from UET Lahore Pakistan. He is Certified Vibration
analyst I and life member of Pakistan Engineering
Council, Pakistan.