UNIT – 5

DESIGN METHODOLOGY
Causes of damage – Planning considerations /
Architectural concepts as per IS:4326 – 1993 –
Guidelines for Earthquake resistant design –
Earthquake resistant design for masonry and
Reinforced Cement Concrete buildings – Later load
analysis – Design and detailing as per IS:13920 – 1993.
CAUSES OF DAMAGE DUE TO
EARTHQUAKE
• Ground shaking
• Ground displacement
• Flooding
• Fire
• Land slide
• Liquefaction
• Tsunami
 GUIDELINES FOR EARTHQUAKE
RESISTANT DESIGN
• Buildings should be designed like the ductile chain.
• Strong-column weak-beam design method
General
• The performance of buildings during earthquakes reveals
that if the earthquake resistant measures as specified in
building codes are adopted, buildings are quite safe.
• Location of building has profound influence on the
performance of buildings. Site selection should be based on
local geology and the subsoil properties which modify the
earthquake ground motion.
• The architects either have little or ignorant about the
earthquake resistant provisions in the building and there is
no method of fixing accountability.
Configuration
• The layout of buildings should be as simple as possible
and there should not be any sudden change in the
distribution of mass or stiffness.
• Avoid construction of heavy structures at the top such as
water tank, swimming pool, garden etc.
• Failure results due to soft storey and weak storey
conditions and therefore should be avoided.
• Integrity of the whole building should be achieved. Proper
detailing of joints and splicing should be made.
Design
• The most of the Structural Engineers and Architects are not
conversant with the latest codal provisions on earthquake
resistance design.
• Buildings designed and constructed as per Indian Codal
practices have withstood the earthquake well and therefore
Codal practices must be followed.
• Adequate strength in both the longitudinal and transverse
directions should be provided.
• Avoid quasi resonance i.e. the fundamental natural
frequency of structure should be away from the
predominant period band of the ground motion.
• The frame of a building should have adequate ductility so as
to permit energy dissipation through plastic deformations.
• For important and tall buildings proper dynamic analysis
should be carried out.
Soil & Foundation
• Building constructed on fills suffer severe damage
• Hard foundation is found to be suitable for all types of
building. Construction of buildings on loose soil such as
filled up should be avoided unless proper care is taken in the
foundation design.
• Loose sandy soil with high water table subjected to violent
ground shaking which may lead to liquefaction. The
liquefaction causes damage to buildings due to differential
settlement, tilting or sinking.
• Isolated footings undergo differential settlement. Tall
buildings resting on piles withstood earthquakes well.
• Structures on hill slopes where landslide is expected, should
be avoided.
Detailing
• Inadequate quantities and anchorage of longitudinal and
transverse reinforcement cause damage/ failure.
• Splicing joints are weak against earthquakes. Column
splicing should be provided in the middle of the column
height. Close stirrups should be used at overlap portion.
• Proper detailing of beam-column joints should be made.
The beam reinforcements should go well inside the column
for better anchorage.
• Strong columns and weak beam design concept should be
aimed so as to prevent total collapse. Close ties should be
provided in columns were large moment is expected.
Construction
• The various builders constructed the buildings with the sole
idea to make large profits taking advantage of the inadequate
building bye-laws and hardly any building control
regulation.
• It is observed that there is lack of awareness about the
earthquake resistant design codes and practices. Their
implementation is not mandatory either in the building
bylaws of the local bodies or in various departments of
Central and the State Governments.
• There was not adequate supervision of construction and
quality control.
Quality Control in Construction
• Strength of construction materials used, workmanship,
supervision, and construction methods. Similarly, special
care is needed in construction to ensure that the elements
meant to be ductile are indeed provided with features that
give adequate ductility.
• Regular testing of construction materials at qualified
laboratories, periodic training of workmen at professional
training houses, and on-site evaluation of the technical
work are elements of good quality control.
 EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN FOR
MASONRY BUILDINGS
How to Improve Behaviour of Masonry Walls
• Walls act together as a box along with the roof at
the top and with the foundation at the bottom.
• Connections between the walls should be good -
ensuring good interlocking of the masonry courses
at the junctions
• Employing horizontal bands at various levels
• Smaller the openings, the larger is the resistance
offered by the wall.
• Limiting its length-to-thickness and height to-
thickness ratios
Choice and Quality of Building Materials
• Burnt clay bricks are most commonly used.
• Cement-sand mortar with lime is most suitable.
• Bricks must be stronger than mortar.
• Excessive thickness of mortar is not desirable.
• A 10mm thick mortar layer is generally
satisfactory from practical and aesthetic
considerations.
• IS codes have different grades of bricks and
mortars to be used in buildings.
Box Action in Masonry Buildings
• Good box action between all the elements of
the building, i.e., between roof, walls and
foundation.
• Loosely connected roof or unduly slender walls
are threats to good seismic behaviour.
• EX: a horizontal band introduced at the lintel
level ties the walls together and helps to make
them behave as a single unit.
Influence of Openings
• Openings too close to wall corners hamper the
flow of forces from one wall to another.
• Further, large openings weaken walls from
carrying the inertia forces in their own plane.
• So, it is best to keep all openings as small as
possible and as far away from the corners as
possible.
Types of Bands
• Gable band, roof band, lintel band and plinth band
• Gable band is employed only in buildings with pitched or
sloped roofs.
• In buildings with flat reinforced concrete, the roof band is
not required, because the roof slab also plays the role of a
band.
• The lintel band ties the walls together and creates a
support for walls loaded along weak direction from
walls loaded in strong direction.
• Plinth bands are primarily used when there is concern
about uneven settlement of foundation soil.
Building with no horizontal lintel band:
collapse of roof and walls
A building with horizontal lintel band in
Killari village: no damage
Design of
Lintel Bands
(a)Cracking in building with no
corner reinforcement
(a)No cracks in building with
vertical reinforcement
How to make Stone Masonry Buildings
Earthquake-Resistant?
EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN
FOR RCC BUILDINGS
Avoid Open-Ground Storey Building

RC frame buildings - in recent times - the ground storey is left

open for the purpose of parking, i.e., columns in the ground
storey do not have any partition walls between them. Such
buildings are often called open ground storey buildings.
 It is relatively flexible in the ground storey, i.e., the relative
horizontal displacement it undergoes in the ground storey is
much larger than what each of the storeys above it does.
This flexible ground storey is also called soft storey.
 It is relatively weak in ground storey, i.e., the total
horizontal earthquake force it can carry in the ground storey
is significantly smaller than what each of the storeys above
it can carry. Thus, the open ground storey may also be a
weak storey.
• After collapse of RC bldgs in Bhuj earthquake, IS:1893 –
2002 - special design provisions related to soft storey bldgs.
• Firstly, it specifies when a building should be considered as
a soft and a weak storey building.
• Secondly, it specifies higher design forces for the soft storey
as compared to the rest of the structure. i.e., for beams and
columns in open ground storey are required to be designed
for 2.5times the forces obtained from normal frame.
• In upcoming RC frame bldgs, the best option is to avoid
sudden and large decrease in stiffness/strength in any storey.
HOW DO BEAMS IN RC BUILDINGS
RESIST EARTHQUAKES?
Flexural Failure:
• If relatively more steel is present - concrete crushes first.
• If relatively less steel is present - the steel fails first.
Shear Failure:
• Shear crack is inclined at 45° to horizontal; it develops at mid-
depth near the support and grows towards the top and
bottom faces.
• Closed loop stirrups are provided to avoid such shearing
action.
Design Strategy

 The factored axial stress on the member under earthquake

loading shall not exceed 0.1 fck.
 The member shall preferably have a width-to-depth ratio of
more than 0.3.
 The width of the member shall not be less than 200 mm.
 The depth D of the member shall preferably be not more than
l/4 of the clear span.
a) Longitudinal Reinforcement
 At least 2 bars go through the full length – top & bottom.
 The tension steel ratio on any face, at any section, shall not
𝑓𝑐𝑘
be less than 𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.24 where, fck = Grade of concrete
𝑓𝑦

in MPa and fy = Grade of steel in MPa.

 Maximum steel ratio on any face at any s/n is ≤ ρmax = 0.025.
 Positive steel at a joint face must be at least equal to half the
negative steel at that face.
 Steel provided at each of the top and bottom face of the
member at any section along its length shall be at least equal
to one-fourth of the maximum negative moment steel
provided at the face of either joint.
Anchorage of Beam Bars in an External Joint
 In external joint, both top and bottom bars of beam shall
be provided with anchorage length, beyond the inner face
of the column, equal to the development length in tension
plus 10 x bar diameter minus the allowance for 90° bend.
 In an internal joint, both face bars of the beam shall be
taken continuously through the column.
• The longitudinal bars shall be spliced, only if hoops are
provided over the entire splice length, at a spacing not
exceeding 150 mm.
• The lap length shall not be less than the bar development
length in tension.
• Lap splices shall not be provided (a) within a joint, b) within
a distance of 2d from joint face, and (c) within a quarter
length of the member where flexural yielding may generally
occur under the effect of earthquake forces.
• Not more than 50% of bars shall be spliced at one section.
b) Stirrups
a) Diameter of stirrup must be at least 6mm; in beams more than
5m long, it must be at least 8mm.
b) Both ends of the vertical stirrups should be bent into a 135°
hook and extended sufficiently beyond this hook to ensure
that the stirrup does not open out in an earthquake.
c) The spacing of vertical stirrups in any portion of the beam
should be determined from calculations
d) The maximum spacing of stirrups is less than half the depth
of the beam.
e) For a length of twice the depth of the beam from the face of
the column, an even more stringent spacing of stirrups is
specified, namely half the spacing mentioned in (c) above.
Location and amount of vertical stirrups in beams
Details of lapping steel reinforcement in seismic beams
HOW DO COLUMNS IN RC BUILDINGS
RESIST EARTHQUAKES?
Closely spaced horizontal ties help in three ways, namely (i)
they carry the horizontal shear forces induced by earthquakes,
and thereby resist diagonal shear cracks, (ii) they hold together
the vertical bars and prevent them from excessively bending
outwards (in technical terms, this bending phenomenon is
called buckling), and (iii) they contain the concrete in the
column within the closed loops. The ends of the ties must be
bent as 135° hooks.
a) Closely spaced ties must be provided at the two ends of the
column over a length not less than larger dimension of the
column, one-sixth the column height or 450mm.
b) Over the distance specified in item (a) above and below a
beam-column junction, the vertical spacing of ties in columns
should not exceed D/4 for where D is the smallest dimension
of the column. This spacing need not be less than 75mm nor
more than 100mm. At other locations, ties are spaced as per
calculations but not more than D/2.
c) The length of tie beyond the 135° bends must be at least 10
times diameter of steel bar used to make the closed tie; this
extension beyond the bend should not be less than 75mm.
In columns where the spacing between the corner bars exceeds
300mm, the Indian Standard prescribes additional links with
180° hook ends for ties to be effective in holding the concrete
in its place and to prevent the buckling of vertical bars.
Lapping Vertical Bars
• Lap length depends on types of reinforcement and concrete.
• For ordinary situations, it is about 50 times bar diameter.
• As per IS:13920-1993, lap length be provided ONLY in the
middle half of column and not near its top or bottom ends.
• Also, only half the vertical bars in the column are to be
lapped at a time in any storey.
• Further, when laps are provided, ties must be provided
along the length of the lap at a spacing not more than
150mm.
Ash of the bar forming circular hoops or spiral, to be used as
special confining reinforcement, shall not be less than;

𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝐴𝑔
𝐴𝑠ℎ = 0.09𝑆𝐷𝑘 − 1.0
𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑘
Where, Ash = Area of the bar cross section,
S = pitch of spiral or spacing of hoops
Dk = Diameter of core measured to the outside of the spiral
or hoop
fck = Characteristic compressive strength of concrete cube
fy = Yield stress of steel ( of circular hoop or spiral ),
Ag = Gross area of the column cross section, and
𝜋 2
Ak = Area of the concrete core = 𝐷
4 𝑘
Ash, of the bar forming rectangular hoop, to be used as special
confining reinforcement, shall not be less than;

𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝐴𝑔
𝐴𝑠ℎ = 0.18𝑆ℎ − 1.0
𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑘

Where,
h = longer dimension of the rectangular confining hoop
measured to its outer face. It shall not exceed 300 mm, and
Ak = Area of confined concrete core in the rectangular hoop
measured to its outside dimensions.
Placing vertical bars and closed ties in columns
HOW DO BEAM-COLUMN JOINTS IN RC
BUILDINGS RESIST EARTHQUAKES?
Anchorage of beam bars in exterior joints
Anchorage of beam bars in interior joints