The cytoplasm contains many cell

organelles:
1. those that trap and release energy e.g.
mitochondria and chloroplasts;
2. those that are secretory or involved in
synthesis and transport e.g. Golgi,
ribosomes and endoplasmic reticulum
3. the organelles for motilily - cilia and
flagella
4. the suicidal bags i.e. lysosomes
5. the nucleus which controls all activities of
the cell, and carries the hereditary
material
Mitochondria and chloroplast - the energy
transformers
Mitochondria (found in plant and
animal cells) are the energy releasers
and the chloroplasts (found only in green
plant cells) are the energy trappers.

Mitochondria (Singular = mitochondrion)

 Appear as tiny thread like structures

under light microscope. Approximately 0.5
1.00 μm (micrometer)
 Endosymbiosis

Mitochondria formed as a
result of an endosymbiotic
event around 2 billion years
ago.
• The theory holds that the eukaryote
mitochodrion evolved from a small,
autotrophic bacterium that was
engulfed by a larger primitive,
heterotrophic, eukaryotic cell.
• This eukaryotic cell arose when an
anaerobic prokaryote (unable to
use oxygen for energy) lost its cell wall.
The more flexible membrane
underneath then began to grow and
fold in on itself which, in turn, led to
formation of a nucleus and another
internal membrane
a) The primitive eukaryotic cell was also eventually able to eat
prokaryotes, a marked improvement to absorbing small
molecules from its environment;
b) The process of endosymbiosis commenced when the
eukaryote engulphed but did not digest a autotrophic
bacterium. Evidence suggests this engulfed bacterium was
an alphaproteobacteria, an autotroph that uses
photosynthesis to acquire energy.
c) The eukaryote then began a mutually beneficial (symbiotic)
relationship with it whereby the eukaryote provided
protection and nutrients to the prokaryote, and in return,
the prokaryotic endosymbiont provided additional energy to
its eukaryotic host through its respiratory cellular
machinary.
d) The relationship became permanent over time completing
primary endosymbiosis as the endosymbiont lost some genes
it used for independent life and transferred others to the
eukaryote's nucleus.
 Mitochondrial compartments
Inner membrane
•Respiratory chain and ATP synthase
•impermeable to most charged molecules
•highly folded into invaginations called cristae.

Outer membrane
•Permeable to larger molecules

Matrix
•Enzymes of the citric acid cycle, mtDNA

Intermembrane space
•space between inner and outer membranes
Mitochondrial compartments
Function :

Oxidises pyruvic acid (breakdown

product of glucose) to release
energy which gets stored in the
from of ATP for ready use.

This process is also called cellular

respiration. That is why
mitochondria are called the ‘power
house’ of a cell.
Plastids
found only in a plant cell. These
may be colourless or coloured.
Based on this fact, there are three
types of plastids.
(i) Leucoplast - white or colourless
(ii) Chromoplast – blue, red, yellow
etc.
(iii) Chloroplast – green
Chloroplast
• Found in all green plant cells in the
cytoplasm.
• Shape: Usually disc-shaped or
laminate as in most plants around you.
• In some ribbon - shaped as in an alga
• Spirogyra or cup-shaped as in
another alga Chlamydomonas.
PARTS:

• Wall made up of double membrane i.e. outer

membrane and inner membrane numerous stack-
like (piles) groups or grana (singular = granum)
are interconnected by lamellae.
• Sac-like structures called thylakoids placed one
above the other constitute a granum.
• Inside of the chloroplast is filled with a fluid
medium called stroma.
• Function: chloroplasts are the site of
photosynthesis (production of sugar, from
carbon dioxide and water in the presence of
sunlight).
THYLAKOID - FOR LIGHT
HARVESTING
stroma contains
starch, chloroplast DNA and
ribosomes, as well as all the
enzymes required for light-
independent reactions
of photosynthesis, also
known as the Calvin cycle.
Calvin Cycle

The Calvin cycle is the cycle of chemical

reactions performed by plants to “fix” carbon
from CO2 into three-carbon sugars.

Later, plants and animals can turn these three-

carbon compounds into amino acids,
nucleotides, and more complex sugars such as
starches.
STEPS in Calvin Cycle

1. Carbon Fixation
2. Reduction
3. Regeneration
Similarities between mitochondria and
chloroplasts :

• both contain their own DNA (the genetic

material) as well as their own RNA (for
protein synthesis).
• they can self-duplicate to produce more of
their own kind without the help of nucleus.
• they are termed as semi-autonomous only
because they are incapable of independent
existence outside the cytoplasm for a long
time. Since most of their proteins are
synthesized with the help of the nuclear
DNA