Chapter 4

4.1 : Digital Modulation

4.2 : Digital Transmission

4.3 : Multiple Access Methods

 4.1 Digital Modulation

Outlines

a. Introduction
b. Information capacity, Bits, Bit Rate, Baud,
M-ary Encoding
c. Digital Modulation Techniques
- ASK, FSK, PSK, QAM
Digital modulation

• Is the transmittal of digitally modulated analog signals

between to or more points in a communications system.

• Can be propagated through Earth’s atmosphere and

used in wireless communication system - digital radio.

• Offer several outstanding advantages over traditional

analog system.
• Ease of processing
• Ease of multiplexing
• Noise immunity
 Cont’d...

• Applications:
• Low speed voice band data comm. modems
• High speed data transmission systems
• Digital microwave & satellite comm. systems
• PCS (personal communication systems) telephone
 Why digital modulation?

• The modulation of digital signals with analogue carriers

allows an improvement in signal to noise ratio as
compared to analogue modulating schemes.
 Important Criteria

1. High spectral efficiency

2. High power efficiency
3. Robust to multipath
4. Low cost and ease of implementation
5. Low carrier-to-co channel interference ratio
6. Low out-of-band radiation
 Cont’d…

7. Constant or near constant envelop

8. Bandwidth Efficiency
• Ability to accommodate data within a limited
bandwidth
• Tradeoff between data rate and pulse width
9. Power Efficiency
• To preserve the fidelity of the digital message at
low power levels.
• Can increase noise immunity by increasing signal
power
 Forms of Digital Modulation

v(t )  V sin( 2ft   )

•If the amplitude, V of the carrier is varied proportional to
the information signal, a digital modulated signal is called
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
•If the frequency, f of the carrier is varied proportional to
the information signal, a digital modulated signal is called
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 Cont’d…

• If the phase, θ of the carrier is varied proportional to the

information signal, a digital modulated signal is called
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

• If both the amplitude and the phase, θ of the carrier are

varied proportional to the information signal, a digital
modulated signal is called Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM)
Cont’d...
 Example 1

For the digital message 1101 1100 1010,

sketch the waveform for the following:
a. ASK
b. FSK
c. PSK
d. QAM
 Block Diagram

Simplified block diagram of a digital modulation system

 Cont’d…
• Precoder performs level conversion & encodes
incoming data into group of bits that modulate an
analog carrier.

• Modulated carrier filtered, amplified &

transmitted through transmission medium to Rx.

• In Rx, the incoming signals filtered, amplified &

applied to the demodulator and decoder circuits
which extracts the original source information
from modulated carrier.
• Information capacity, Bits & Bit Rate
– Represents the number of independent
symbols that can be carried through a system
in a given unit of time.
– Basic digital symbol is the binary digit or bit.
– Express the information capacity as a bit rate.
 Hartley’s Law

I  Bt
Where
I = information capacity (bps)
B = bandwidth (Hz)
t = transmission time (s)

From the equation, Information capacity is a linear

function of bandwidth and transmission time and
directly proportional to both.
 Shannon’s Formula

I  B log 2 (1  NS ) or I  3.32 B log 10 (1  NS )

Where
I = information capacity (bps)
B = bandwidth (Hz)
S = signal to noise power ratio (unitless)
N

The higher S/N the better the performance and the

higher the information capacity
 Example 2

By using the Shannon’s Formula, calculate

the information capacity if S/N = 30 dB and
B = 2.7 kHz.
30
S / N  anti log  1000
10
I  3.32  2700 log 10 (1  1000)  26,896bps
 Nyquist Sampling Rate

• fs is equal or greater than 2fm

fs >= 2fm

fs = minimum Nyquist sample rate (Hz)

fm = maximum analog input frequency (Hz)
 Example 3

Determine the Nyquist sample rate for a

maximum analog input frequency 7.5 kHz.

fs >= 2fm=2x7.5kHz=15kHz
 M-ary Encoding

• It is often advantageous to encode at a level higher than

binary where there are more then two conditions
possible.
• The number of bits necessary to produce a given
number of conditions is expressed mathematically as

N  log 2 M
Where N = number of bits necessary
M = number of conditions, level or combinations
possible with N bits.
 Cont’d…

• Each symbol represents N bits, and has M

signal states, where M = 2N.
 Example 4

Find the number of voltage levels which

can represent an analog signal with
a. 8 bits per sample
b. 12 bits per sample

M = 2N =28 =256

M = 2N =212 =4096
 Baud & Minimum BW

• Baud refers to the rate of change of a signal on the

transmission medium after encoding and modulation
have occurred.

1
baud 
ts
Where
baud = symbol rate (symbol per second)
ts = time of one signaling element @ symbol
(seconds)
 Cont’d…

• Minimum Bandwidth
– Using multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formulation for channel
capacity

f b  2 BN log 2 M

Where fb= channel capacity (bps)

BN = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (Hz)
M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels
 Cont’d…

For BN necessary to pass M-ary digitally modulated carriers

 fb  fb
BN      baud
 log 2 M  N

Where N is the number of bits encoded into each

signaling element.
• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
• Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
• Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

• A binary information signal directly modulates the amplitude of an

analog carrier.
• Sometimes called Digital Amplitude Modulation (DAM)

vask (t )  [1  vm (t )] cos(ct ) A
2

Where vask (t) = amplitude shift keying wave

vm(t) = digital information signal (volt)
A/2 = unmodulated carrier amplitude (volt)
ωc = analog carrier radian frequency (rad/s)
 Cont’d...

Digital Amplitude Modulation

 A cos(c t ) for logic '1' , vm (t )  1

vask (t )  
 0 for logic '0' , vm (t )  1
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

• Called as Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)

• The phase shift in carrier frequency (∆f) is proportional to the
amplitude of the binary input signal (vm(t)) and the direction of
the shift is determined by the polarity

v fsk (t )  Vc cos2 [ f c  vm (t )f ]t

Where vfsk(t) = binary FSK waveform

Vc = peak anlog carrier amplitude (volt)
fc = analog carrier center frequency (Hz)
∆f = peak shift in analog carrier frequency (Hz)
vm(t) = binary input signal (volt)
 Vc cos2 [ f c  f ]t for logic '1' , vm (t )  1
v fsk (t )  
Vc cos2 [ f c  f ]t for logic '0' , vm (t )  1

fm  fs
f  ,
2
where
f  frequency deviation (Hz)
f m  f s  absolute difference between mark & space frequency (Hz)

B  2f  f b 
B  ( f s  fb )  ( f m  fb )  f s  f m  2 fb  2(f  fb )
 Cont’d...

Binary Input Frequency Output

0 Space (fs)

1 Mark (fm)
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

• Another form of angle-modulated, constant amplitude

digital modulation.
• Binary digital signal input & limited number of output
phases possible.
• M-ary digital modulation scheme with the number of
output phases defined by M.
• The simplest PSK is Binary Phase-Shift Keying (BPSK)
– N= 1, M=2
– Two phases possible for carrier with one phase for logic 1 and
another phase for logic 0
– The output carrier shifts between two angles separated by 180°
 Cont’d...

a) Truth Table b) Phasor Diagram c) Constellation Diagram

Cont’d...

BPSK Transmitter
 Cont’d...

BPSK Receiver
 Bandwidth bpsk

BPSK  sin 2f a t  sin 2f bt   cos2  f c  f a t   cos2  f c  f a t 

1 1
2 2

Minimum double – sided Nyquist bandwidth (B) is

B   fb  f a    fb  f a   2 f a
fb
but fa 
2

2 fb
B  fb
2
 QPSK
Quaternary phase shift keying (QPSK)
 Quaternary meaning “4”
 Binary signal produce 4 different inputs
 Represented by 2 bit

2 bits (dibit) produce 4 possible condition 00, 01, 10 ,11

represented by phase -135 ,-45, +135, +45, .
 QPSK transmitter

• Signal divide into 2 input data called I and Q

signals I channel f /2 b
+ sin  t c
Balanced
Binary input 0=-1V modulator
Bandpass
1=+1V
filter
Bit I Reference
splitter Carrier
Q oscillator, c Linear QPSK output
BPF
summer

90o phase
+2
shift
Bit clock
0=-1V Bandpass
1=+1V filter
Balanced
modulator
Q channel fb/2
+ cos c t
 Signal representation
If Q=0 and I=0 then the input to modulator will be -1
I modulator output become – sin ct
Q modulator output become – cosct
Linear summer – sin ct – cosct = 1.414( sin ct -135)
If Q=0 and I=1 then the input to modulator will be
I modulator output become + sin ct
Q modulator output become - cosct
Linear summer sin ct - cosct = 1.414( sin ct - 45)

If Q=1 and I=0 then the input to modulator will be

I modulator output become - sin ct
Q modulator output become + cosct
Linear summer - sin ct + cosct = 1.414( sin ct +135)
If Q=1 and I=1 then the input to modulator will be +1
I modulator output become + sin ct
Q modulator output become + cosct
Linear summer + sin ct + cosct = 1.414( sin ct +45)
 CONSTELLATION DIAGRAM

Definition : A graphical representation of the complex

envelope of each possible symbol state.

 The x-axis represents the in-phase component

and the y-axis the quadrature component of the
complex envelope

 The distance between signals on a constellation

diagram relates to how different the modulation
waveforms are and how easily a receiver can
differentiate between them.
Cont’d...
 Cont’d...

3 bits
000

111 001

010

110

011
101
100
 Bandwidth of QPSK

• Since the input divided into two , I and Q then the

bit rate is either I and Q , half of fb. The highest
frequency of the input of balanced modulator is
another half , so baud = fb /4. The Nyquist is
twice , so fN= fb /2 .
 f 
output  sin a t sin c t    sin 2 b t sin 2f c t 
 4 

1  f  1  f 
 cos 2  f c  b t  cos 2  f c  b t
2  4 2  4

 f   f  f
BN   f c  b    f c  b   b
 4  4 2
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(QAM)

• Combine amplitude and phase-shift

keying. Not like QPSK, the amplitude is not
constant.
• Advantage over QPSK, reduce the
likelihood of error
Cont’d...
Cont’d...
 Cont’d...

• Amplitude and phase shift keying can be combined to transmit

several bits per symbol.
– Often referred to as linear as they require linear
amplification.
– More bandwidth-efficient, but more susceptible to noise.

• For M = 4, 16QAM has the largest distance between points, but

requires very linear amplification. 16PSK has less stringent
linearity requirements, but has less spacing between
constellation points, and is therefore more affected by noise.

• High level M-ary schemes (such as 64-QAM) are very

bandwidth-efficient but more susceptible to noise and require
linear amplification
 Bandwidth Efficiency

– Used to compare the performance of one digital

modulation technique to another.

Bη = Transmission bit rate (bps)

Minimum bandwidth (Hz)

 Example 5

For ASK system, operating with an information bit rate of 10

kbps, determine:
a. Baud
b. Minimum bandwidth
c. Bandwidth efficiency
f b 10kbps
baud    10kbps
N 1
f b 10kbps
BN    10kbps
1 1
Transmissi on bit rate 10kbps
B   1
minimum bandwidth 10kbps
 Example 6
For FSK system with mark frequency of 49kHz and a space
frequency of 51kHz, operating with an information bit rate of
10 kbps, determine:
a. Baud
b. Minimum bandwidth
c. Bandwidth efficiency
f b 10kbps
baud    10kbps
N 1
f 
51khz  49khz  1kHz
2
BN  2f  f b   21kHz  10kbps  22kbps
Transmissi on bit rate 10kbps
B    0.4545
minimum bandwidth 22kbps
 Example 7

For 16-PSK system, operating with an information bit rate

of 32 kbps, determine:
a. Baud
b. Minimum bandwidth
c. Bandwidth efficiency
f b 32,000
baud    8kbps
N 4
f b 32kbps
BN    8kbps
N 4
Transmissi on bit rate 32kbps
B   4
minimum bandwidth 8kbps
 Summary

Modulation Encoding Output BN Baud

possible
ASK 1 bit 2 fb fb
FSK 1 bit 2 2(fb+ f) fb
PSK 1 bit 2 fb fb
QPSK 2 bits 4 fb/2 fb/2
8-PSK 3 bits 8 fb/3 fb/3
8-QAM 3 bits 8 fb/3 fb/3
16-PSK 4 bits 16 fb/4 fb/4
16-QAM 4 bits 16 fb/4 fb/4
32-PSK 5 bits 32 fb/5 fb/5
32-QAM 5 bits 32 fb/5 fb/5
 CONCLUSION

• To decide which modulation method should

be used , we need to make considerations of

a) Bandwidth
b) Speed of Modulation
c) Complexity of Hardware