Universal conditional statements in informal English are

quite often implied rather than specific. Rewrite the

following statements formally.
1. Any student with a GPA of better than 3.5 must study a
lot.
2. If a polygon has 3 sides, it must be a triangle.
3. All real numbers are positive when squared.
4. A girl has got to be crazy to date that guy.
1. students x, if x's GPA is better than 3.5, x studies a
lot.
2. polygons p, if p has 3 sides, p is a triangle.
3. numbers n, if n is real, n2 is positive.
4. .girls g, if g dates that guy, g is crazy.
EXAMPLE:

Z={x:x  is  an  integer}
You can read Z={x:x  is  an  integer}Z={x:x  is  an  integer} as "The
set ZZ equals all the values of xx such that xx is an integer."
M={x | x>3}M={x | x>3}

(This last notation means "all real numbers xx such that xx is greater than 33 ."
So, for example, 3.13.1 is in the set MM , but 22 is not. The vertical bar |
means "such that".)

You can also have a set which has no elements at all. This special set is called
the empty set, and we write it with the special symbol ∅∅ .
If xx is a element of a set AA , we write x∈Ax∈A , and if xx is not an element
of AA we write x∉Ax∉A .

So, using the sets defined above,

−862∈Z−862∈Z , since −862−862 is an integer, and
2.9∉M2.9∉M , since 2.92.9 is not greater than 33 .
EXAMPLE:
1. Q = {x, y, z}. How many subsets and
proper subsets will Q have?
2. List all the subsets and proper subsets of
the set Q = {x, y, z}
SOLUTION:
1. Q has 3 elements
Number of subsets = 23 = 8
Number of proper subsets = 72.
2. The subsets of Q are { }, {x}, {y}, {z},
{x, y}, {x, z}, {y, z} and {x, y, z}
The proper subsets of Q are { }, {x}, {y},
{z}, {x, y}, {x, z}, {y, z}
EXAMPLE 1:
Look carefully at the following figures. Then, use
inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about the next
figure in the pattern.

If you have carefully observed the pattern, may be you

came up with the figure below:
EXAMPLE 2: Each of for neighbors shan, john, mund and lyca
has different occupation (writer, teacher, chef, or doctor).
From the following clues, determine the occupation of each
neighbors.

Here are the clues:

1. John goes home from work after the teacher but before the doctor.
2. Mund who is last to go home from work is not the writer.
3. The doctor and mund leave work at the same time.
4. The teacher lives next door to Ana.
SOLUTION:
1. From clue 1, john is not teacher nor the doctor.
2. From clue 2, mund is not the writer and from clue 1, the teacher is
not the last to go home, but mund is.
3. From clue 3, mund is the doctor, leaving Agnes as the probable chef.
Since mund is the chef, the other three are not.
4. John is the writer and the other two, shan and lyca are not
5. From clue 4, lyca is not the teacher which makes lyca the doctor and
shan the teacher

WRITER TEACHER CHEF DOCTOR

SHAN X / X X
JOHN / X X X
MUND X X / X
LYCA X X X /
EXAMPLE 1: Find the rule for the nth figure. Then find
the number of colored tiles in the 20th figure
SOLUTION:
The difference of terms is always 3. So the rule is 3n +
something.
Let’s use s to stand for the unknown “something.” So the
rule is 3n + s
To find s, replace the n in the rule with a term number. Try
n = 1 and set the expression equal to 1 (since when the
term is 1 the value is also 1).

3(1) + s = 1 or s = −2. Thus the rule is 3n − 2. Rules for

sequences can be expressed using function notation.
f(n) = 3n − 2
EXAMPLE 2: FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

The Fibonacci Sequence is the series of numbers:

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ...

The next number is found by adding up the two numbers

before it.
The 2 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+1)
The 3 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+2),
And the 5 is (2+3),
and so on!

Example: the next number in the sequence above is 21+34

= 55
EXAMPLE 1: A man is 9 times the age of his son but in 3 years he will
only be 5 times his son's age. What is the man's age?

SOLUTION:
1. We need to establish the father's age through a process of
manipulating numbers. In this case if x= the son's age, the father is 9x.
2. The plan is to make an equation based on given information -
basically translating it into "math language."
In 3 years the son will be 3+x. The father will be 9x+3
The father will be 5 times his son's age in 3 years, thus:
9x+3=5(x+3)
3. Once the equation has been made, solve for the unknown.
Therefore x=3
4. Reviewing the results means, we can establish that the father is 27
years old.
 Example 1: Alex usually works 7 days a week, but
sometimes just 1, 2, or 5 days.
Alex worked:
• on 2 weeks: 1 day each week
• on 14 weeks: 2 days each week
• on 8 weeks: 5 days each week
• on 32 weeks: 7 days each week
SOLUTION:
What is the mean number of days Alex works per week?

Use "Weeks" as the weighting:

Weeks × Days = 2 × 1 + 14 × 2 + 8 × 5 + 32 × 7
= 2 + 28 + 40 + 224 = 294
Also add up the weeks:
Weeks = 2 + 14 + 8 + 32 = 56
Divide:
Mean = 29456 = 5.25
It looks like this:
SOLUTION:
w for the number of weeks (the weight)
x for days (the value we want the mean of)
Multiply w by x, sum up w and sum up wx:
WEIGHT W DAYS X WX

2 1 2
14 2 28
8 5 40
32 7 224
Σw = 56 Σwx = 294

Mean = 294/56 = 5.25

 Example 1:
Find the standard deviation of 4, 9, 11, 12, 17, 5, 8,
12, 14
First work out the mean: 10.222
Now, subtract the mean individually from each of

x 4 9 11 12 17 5 8 12 14
(x - x bar )2 38.7 1.49 0.60 3.16 45.9 27.3 4.94 3.16
SOLUTION:

Now add up these results (this is the 'sigma' in the formula): 139.55
Divide by n. n is the number of values, so in this case is 9. This gives us:
15.5. And finally, square root this: 3.94

The standard deviation can usually be calculated much more easily

with a calculator and this may be acceptable in some exams. On my
calculator, you go into the standard deviation mode (mode '.'). Then
type in the first value, press 'data', type in the second value, press 'data'.
Do this until you have typed in all the values, then press the standard
deviation button (it will probably have a lower case sigma on it). Check
your calculator's manual to see how to calculate it on yours.

NB: If you have a set of numbers (e.g. 1, 5, 2, 7, 3, 5 and 3), if each

number is increased by the same amount (e.g. to 3, 7, 4, 9, 5, 7 and 5),
the standard deviation will be the same and the mean will have
increased by the amount each of the numbers were increased by (2 in
this case). This is because the standard deviation measures the spread
of the data. Increasing each of the numbers by 2 does not make the
numbers any more spread out, it just shifts them all along.
 Example 2: The heights (at the shoulders) are: 600mm, 470mm,
170mm, 430mm and 300mm. (Find out the Mean, the Variance, and
the Standard Deviation)
Your first step is to find the Mean:
600 + 470 + 170 +
Mean =
430 + 3005
= 19705
= 394

To calculate the Variance, take each difference, square it, and then average the
result:
206 + 76 +
2 2

σ2 = (−224)2 + 362 +
(−94)25
42436 + 5776 +
= 50176 + 1296 +
88365
So the Variance is 21,704 = 1085205
= 21704
Example 1: In general, the mean height of women is 65″ with a
standard deviation of 3.5″. What is the probability of finding a random
sample of 50 women with a mean height of 70″, assuming the heights
are normally distributed?

z = (x – μ) / (σ / √n)
= (70 – 65) / (3.5/√50) = 5 / 0.495 = 10.1
Example 2: (Box and Whisker Plot)
Draw a box-and-whisker plot for the data set {3, 7, 8, 5, 12,
14, 21, 13, 18}.
From our Example 1 on the previous page, we had the five-
number summary:

Minimum: 3, Q1 : 6, Median: 12, Q3 : 16, and Maximum:

21.
Example 1: We have the frequency distribution of the
chips “Pringles” at 40 different shops.

Price for 1 bank of chips Number of shops

$23.50–$23.74 11

$23.75–$23.99 9

$24.00–$24.24 10

$24.25–$24.49 10
Solution:

Relative Relative
Price for 1 bank
Number of shops frequency frequency
of chips
(fraction) (percent)

$23.50–$23.74 11 11/40 = 0.275 27.5%

$23.75–$23.99 9 9/40 = 0.225 22.5%

$24.00–$24.24 10 10/40 = 0.25 25%

$24.25–$24.49 10 10/40 = 0.25 25%

With a sample size of 40 shops, we have divided each number of

shops by 40. The result can be written as a fraction or as a percentage.
For example, 25% of shops have relative frequency of prices between
$24.25 and $24.49.
Example 2: Normal Distribution
95% of students at school are between 1.1m
and 1.7m tall.
The mean is halfway between 1.1m and 1.7m:
Mean = (1.1m + 1.7m) / 2 = 1.4m
95% is 2 standard deviations either side of the
mean (a total of 4 standard deviations) so:
1 standard deviation = (1.7m-1.1m) / 4
= 0.6m / 4
= 0.15m
 X Y
1.00 1.00
2.00 2.00
3.00 1.30
4.00 3.75
5.00 2.25
Linear regression consists of finding the best-fitting straight
line through the points. The best-fitting line is called
a regression line. The black diagonal line in Figure 2 is the
regression line and consists of the predicted score on Y for each
possible value of X. The vertical lines from the points to the
regression line represent the errors of prediction. As you can
see, the red point is very near the regression line; its error of
prediction is small. By contrast, the yellow point is much higher
than the regression line and therefore its error of prediction is
large.
Example 2: Linear Correlation Coefficient
Solution:
Given variables are,
X = 4, 8 ,12, 16 and Y = 5, 10, 15, 20
For finding the linear coefficient of these data, we need to first
construct a table for the required values.

x y x2 y2 XY
4 5 16 25 20
8 10 64 100 80
12 15 144 225 180
16 20 256 400 320
Σ x = 40 Σ y =50 480 750 600

r(xy)=4×600−40×50/4√×4024√×750×502=0.00008
 Example 1:
If p=p= "You eat your supper tonight" and q=q= "You get
desert". Then
Solution:
1. Not p is "You don't eat your supper tonight".
2. p and q is "You eat your supper tonight and you get
desert".
3. p or q is "You eat your supper tonight or you get
desert".
4. If p then q is "If you eat your supper tonight then you
get dessert."
Example 2: Conjunction
Consider statements p:=1+1=2p:=1+1=2 and q:=2<5q:=2<5.
Note that, p∧q is true only if both p and q are both true.
Since statements p and q are both true, p∧q is true.

p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Example 1:
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P: The art show was enjoyable.
Q: The room was hot.
Step 2: Write the compound statement in symbolic form.
P^Q
Notice that even though the original sentence had the word
"but" instead of "and" the meaning is the same.

Step 3: Determine the order in which the logic operations

are to be performed.
In this case, only one logic operation is being performed.
Step 4: Set up the truth table.
Since there are two variables, there are four rows in the table
(two raised to the power of two). There are three columns; two
for the variables and one for the conjunction.

Step 5: Complete the table from left to right.

There is only one column to complete. The exceptional case
for conjunction has been highlighted.
Example 2: A Three – Valued Logic
If the tire is flat then I will have to remove it and take it to the gas
station.
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P: The tire is flat.
Q: I have to remove the tire.
R: I have to take the tire to the gas station.

Step 2: Write the compound statement in symbolic form.

P -> (Q ^ R) The parentheses are included for the sake of clarity.
They are not needed here since conjunction has a higher precedence
than the conditional.

Step 3: Determine the order in which the logic operations are

to be performed.
There are two logical operations in this expression. Conjunction has
a higher precedence than the conditional so the operations will be
performed in this order:
And: Q ^ R Conditional: P -> (Q ^ R)
Step 4: Set up the truth table.
Since there are three variables, the table will have eight rows
(two to the power of three). There are five columns: three for
the variables, one for the "and" operation and one for the
conditional.
Step 5: Complete the table from left to right.
First, complete the column for the conjunction of Q and R.
The exceptional case for the conjunction has been
highlighted.
Example 1:
p represents, "I do my homework," and q represents "I get my
allowance." The statement pq is a conditional statement which
represents "If p, then q.“
p q P q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

In the truth table above, pq is only false when the hypothesis

(p) is true and the conclusion (q) is false; otherwise it is true.
Note that a conditional is a compound statement. Now that we
have defined a conditional, we can apply it to
Example 2: The negation and Conditional

"If all rich people are happy, then all poor people are sad."
First, this statement has the form "If A, then B", where A is
the statement "All rich people are happy" and B is the
statement "All poor people are sad." So the negation has the
form "A and not B." So we will need to negate B. The
negation of the statement B is "There exists a poor person
who is not sad."

Putting this together gives: "All rich people are happy, but
there exists a poor person who is not sad" as the negation of
"If all rich people are happy, then all poor people are sad."
Example 1: Given a conditional statement there are several
other related statements of interest: the converse,
the inverse, and the contrapositive.
These statements are defined and illustrated below.
Conditional: P -> Q
If she has a fever then she is sick.
Converse: Q -> P
If she is sick then she has a fever.
Inverse: ~P -> ~Q
If she does not have a fever then she is not sick.
Contrapositive: ~Q -> ~P
If she is not sick then she does not have a fever.
 P Q ~P ~Q P -> Q Q -> P ~P -> ~Q ~Q -> ~P
T T F F T T T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T T T T T T

Notice, in particular, that a conditional and its contrapositive

are equivalent statements. The inverse and the converse are
also equivalent statements (in fact, the inverse is the
contrapositive of the converse.)
However, the truth of a conditional tells us nothing about the
truth of the converse (or its equivalent, the inverse). One of
the more common errors in logic is to assume a connection
between the truth of a conditional and the truth of its
converse (or inverse) when no such connection exists.
Example 1:
If you watch Good Morning America, then you see Robin Roberts.
You did not see Robin Roberts.
∴ You did not watch Good Morning America.
Solution:
Let
p: You watch Good Morning America.
q: You see Robin Roberts.
In symbolic form, the argument is
p→q
~p
∴ ~p

The argument is [(p → q) ⋀ ~q] → ~p.

Example 2: Transitive
If the apartment is damaged, then the deposit won't be refunded.
The apartment isn't damaged. Therefore, the deposit will be refunded.
Step 1: Symbolize the argument.
Let p be the statement "The apartment is damaged."
Let q be the statement "The deposit won't be refunded."
The argument has this form:
p"q
~p
∴~q P Q P q ~p ~q
T T T F F
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T T T
 Step 3: Look for the indication of an INVALID argument
(a row where every premise is true while the conclusion is
false).
Notice that in the third row, both premises are true while
the conclusion is false; this "bad row" tells us that the
argument is INVALID.
Example 1:
"All elephants are huge creatures. Some huge creatures
have tusks. Therefore, some elephants have tusks.“
The argument will be invalid if and only if it is possible to
draw the diagram in such a way that it shows that "all
elephants are huge creatures" and also shows that "some
huge creatures have tusks" but doesn't show that "some
elephants have tusks."
It is also important to remember this basic fact about all
arguments: Whether or not an argument is valid has nothing
to do with whether or not the conclusion sounds like a
reasonable statement.
We begin with a Venn diagram that agrees with the first
premise, "All elephants are huge creatures. This diagram
must show the set "elephants" contained within the set
"huge creatures."
 Huge creatures

elephants

Next, we expand the diagram to include the second premise,

"Some huge creatures have tusks." Thus, we must draw the
set of "things with tusks" in such a way that it overlaps the
set of huge creatures. In fact there are several ways to do
this, including:+

Huge creatures Huge creature

Things with Things
elephants with tusks
elephants tusks
 Notice that although both Figures I and II above agree
with both premises, Figure I also denies the conclusion
(that it, it doesn't show that "Some elephants have
tusks"). Figure I above is a counterexample to the
argument; it shows us that the argument is INVALID. In
fact, the invalid argument in this example is closely
related to Fallacy of the Converse.
Example 2:
All elephants are huge creatures. Some huge creatures have
tusks. Therefore, some elephants have tusks.

Before we solve this problem, we will point out that this

argument is different from any of the arguments that we've
encountered so far, in that it involves the word "some." In our
previous work we have relied on the following facts that give
the relationships between certain quantified statements and
logical connectives.

"All A are B" is equivalent to "If A, then B." "No A are B" is
equivalent to "If A, then not B." However, the quantifier
"some" is not covered by the two rules shown above
 FACT: The statement "Some A are B" is not equivalent to
any useful statement involving logical connectives. Since
our construction of truth tables depends upon the properties
of logical connectives, the fact above leads to this profound
fact about arguments:
FACT: The truth table method is of no practical use when
an argument contains at least one statement of the form
"Some A are B."
Example 1:
The graph below has several possible Euler circuits. Here’s
a couple, starting and ending at vertex A: ADEACEFCBA
and AECABCFEDA. The second is shown in arrows.
Example 2: Euler's path
In the graph shown below, there are several Euler paths.
One such path is CABDCB. The path is shown in arrows to
the right, with the order of edges numbered.
Example 1: Hamiltonian
One Hamiltonian circuit is shown on the graph below. There are
several other Hamiltonian circuits possible on this graph. Notice that
the circuit only has to visit every vertex once; it does not need to use
every edge.
This circuit could be notated by the sequence of vertices visited,
starting and ending at the same vertex: ABFGCDHMLKJEA. Notice
that the same circuit could be written in reverse order, or starting and
ending at a different vertex.
Example 2:

Consider again our salesman. Starting in Seattle, the nearest

neighbor (cheapest flight) is to LA, at a cost of $70. From there:

LA to Chicago: $100
Chicago to Atlanta: $75
Atlanta to Dallas: $85
Dallas to Seattle: $120
Total cost: $450
Example 1:
he graph K4 is planar, since it can be drawn in the plane
without edges crossing.

The three plane drawings of K4 are:

Example 2: No planar Graph

If we remove the edges (V1,V4),(V3,V4)and (V5,V4) the graph

G1,becomes homeomorphic to K5.Hence it is non-planar.
If we remove the edge V2,V7) the graph G2 becomes
homeomorphic to K3,3.Hence it is a non-planar.
Example 1:
Take a look at the following graph. The regions ‘aeb’ and
‘befc’ are adjacent, as there is a common edge ‘be’
between those two regions.
Similarly the other regions are also coloured based
on the adjacency. This graph is coloured as follows
Example 2: Colorable Graph Theorem
Let G be a simple graph, and let PG(k) be the number of ways of
coloring the vertices of G with k colors in such a way that no two
adjacent vertices are assigned the same color. The function PG(k) is
called the chromatic polynomial of G.

Then the top vertex can be assigned any of the k colors, the left vertex can be
assigned any k-1 colors, and right vertex can be assigned any of the k-2 colors.
The chromatic polynomial of K3 is therefore k(k-1)(k-2). The extension of this
immediately gives us the following result.

If G is the complete graph Kn, then PG(k) = k(k - 1)(k - 2) . . . (k - n +1).

Example 1:
As in our initial clock example, let's work in modulus 12. Assume
it is 7:00, and we want to know what time it will be 10 hours from
now.

Solution:
Basically, this is asking us to find (7 + 10)mod12. To perform this
operation, we first add 7 + 10 to get 17, so (7 + 10)mod12 is
congruent to 17mod12. Next, we find 17mod12. To find
17mod12, we find the remainder when 17 is divided by 12, which
is 5. Therefore, (7 + 10)mod12 is congruent to 5mod12. This tells
us that if it is 7:00, then 10 hours from now, it will be 5:00. The
following image shows the work that's described in a nice
compact form.
Example 2: addition modulo n

5+63=25+63=2, since 5+3=8=1(6)+25+3=8=1(6)+2, i.e., it is the least

non-negative reminder when 5+35+3 is divisible by 66.

Thus to find a+mba+mb, we add aa and bb in the ordinary way

and then from the sum, we remove integral multiples of mm in
such a way that the remainder rr is either 00 or a positive integer
less than mm.
hen aa and bb are two integers such that a−ba−b is divisible by a
fixed positive integer mm, then we have a≡b(modm)a≡b(modm).
This is read as aa is concurrent to bb (modm)(modm).
Thus,a≡b(modm )a≡b(modm) if and only if a−ba−b is divisible
by mm. For
example 13≡3(mod5)13≡3(mod5) since 13−3=1013−3=10 is
divisible
by 55, 5≡5(mod5)5≡5(mod5), 16≡4(mod6)16≡4(mod6), −20≡4(mod
6)−20≡4(mod6).
Example 1:
Working in modulus 5, find (73 - 64)mod5.

Solution:

If we subtract first, we have 73 - 64 = 9, so (73 - 64)mod5 is congruent to

9mod5. Now we just need to find the remainder when 9 is divided by 5, which is
4. Therefore, (73 - 64)mod5 is congruent to 4mod5.

We can also first find that 73mod5 is congruent to 3mod5 and that 64mod5 is
congruent to 4mod5. By our rules, we have that (73 - 64)mod5 is congruent to
3mod5 - 4mod5 which is congruent to -1mod5. We have a negative number, so
we add multiples of 5 until we get a number between 0 and 4. If we add 5 to -1,
we get 4, which falls in our range, so this is our answer. We see that once again,
we get that (73 - 64)mod5 is congruent to 4mod5.
 Example 2:

ISBN 0 1 9 8 5 2 6 6 3 6
with
check
digit

Weight 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Produc 0 + 9 + 72 + 56 + 30 + 10 + 24 + 18 + 6 + 6 = 231
t

231 (the sum of products) divided by 11 (the modulus) = 21 remainder 0. Zero remainder = valid
ISBN
Example 1:
Rotation by 2π/n generates a subgroup isomorphic to Cn the
cyclic group of order n.
Note that Cn is the symmetry group of many figures in R2.

has symmetry group C2 , has symmetry group C3 , has symmetry group C4 ,

etc.
Example 2: Permutation Groups
A license plate begins with three letters. If the possible
letters are A, B, C, D and E, how many different
permutations of these letters can be made if no letter is
used more than once?

The problem involves 5 things (A, B, C, D, E) taken 3 at a

time.

P(5.3)=5!/(5-3)!=5!/2!=5x4x3x2x!/2!=60

There are 60 different permutations for the license plate.