• The American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• The American Petroleum Institute (API). • Established Standard Components of piping systems. • They are found in ANSI B31 code sections • Specific requirements for pumping systems have been included in the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) • ANSI B31.3 code section.(pumping) Selection of Piping Materials • (1) possible exposure to fire with respect to the loss in strength or combustibility of the pipe and supports; • (2) susceptibility of the pipe to brittle failure or thermal shock failure when exposed to fire; • (3) ability of thermal insulation to protect the pipe from fire; • (4) susceptibility of the pipe and joints to corrosion or adverse electrolytic effect; • (5) suitability of packing, seals, gaskets, and lubricants used on joints and connections; • (6) refrigeration effect during sudden loss of pressure with volatile fluids; and • (7) compatibility with the fluid handled. Specific material precautions for piping systems Schedule number • American Standards Association (ASA) • The schedule number is defined
• {schedule number= 1000 Ps/Ss}
• Where , Ps = the safe working pressure • Ss= the safe working stress • Working pressure Ps is defined as 2 S s tm Ps Dm • Where , • t is the minimum wall thickness in m, • D, the mean diameter in m • Ps and Ss in kPa. • Pipe sizes are based on the approximate diameter and are reported as nominal pipe sizes. • Although the wall thickness varies depending on the schedule number, the outside diameter of any pipe having a given nominal size is constant and independent of the schedule number • Birmingham wire gauge (BWG), are used to indicate the wall thickness Design of Piping Systems • Various items need to be considered when developing the design for a piping system. • (1) the hazardous properties of the fluid, • (2) the quantity of fluid that could be released by a piping failure, • (3) the effect of a failure on overall plant safety, • (4) evaluation of the effects of a reaction of the fluid with the environment, • (5) the probable extent of human exposure to all aspects of the piping failure, and • (6) the inherent safety of the piping system by virtue of materials of construction, methods of fabrication, and history of service reliability. • These safety considerations must also be exercised in such design items as • (1) selecting piping materials and pipe sizes, • (2) checking effects of temperature level and temperature changes on thermal expansion, freezing, and insulation requirements, • (3) ensuring flexibility in the piping system to withstand physical and thermal shocks, • (4) establishing adequate support structures for the system, and • (5) providing a system configuration that is easy to install, inspect, and maintain. • Dynamic Effects The pipe stresses resulting from thermal expansion or contraction must be considered in any piping system design. • The piping design must provide for possible impact from the effect of high winds, earthquakes, discharge reactions, and vibrations from piping arrangement and support. • water hammer in the piping system may cause extreme stresses at bends in pipelines. • In steam lines, this effect can be minimized by eliminating liquid pockets in the line through the use of steam traps and sloping of the line in the direction of flow. • Ambient Effects :If cooling of the fluid in the system results in a vacuum, the design must provide for the additional pressure difference experienced by the system, or a vacuum breaker may need to be installed. Pipe Sizing • Optimum pipe diameter: • It provides the minimum total cost of both the annual pumping power and the fixed charges for a particular piping system. • where D,i0pt is the optimum pipe diameter in m, mv = the volumetric flow rate in m3/s, • p the fluid density in kg/m3 and uf the fluid viscosity in Pa-s. PUMPING OF FLUIDS • Pumps are used to transfer fluids from one location to another. • The pump accomplishes is transfer by increasing the pressure of the fluid and, thereby, supplying the driving force necessary for flow. Selection of Pumps • Selection of a pump for a specific service requires knowledge of : • the liquid to be handled, • the total dynamic head required, • the suction and discharge heads, • The temperature, viscosity, vapor pressure, and density of the fluid. • Special attention will need to be given to those cases where solids are contained in the liquid. Types of Pumps • 1) centrifugal pumps (including turbine and axial pumps), • (2) positive displacement pumps, • (3) jet pumps, • (4) electromagnetic pumps. Centrifugal Pumps • In the centrifugal pump, the fluid is fed into the pump at the center of a rotating impeller and is thrown outward by centrifugal force. • The fluid at the outer periphery of the impeller attains a high velocity and, consequently, a high kinetic energy. • The conversion of this kinetic energy to pressure energy supplies the pressure difference between the suction side and the delivery side of the pump. • For an ideal centrifugal pump, the speed of the impeller Nr in revolutions per minute should be directly proportional to the fluid discharge rate mv, • The head, or pressure difference, produced by the pump is a function of the kinetic energy developed at the point of release from the impeller. • The head developed by the pump is directly proportional to the square of the impeller speed. • As the power required for such a pump is directly proportional to the product of the head and the flow rate, • One of the parameters that is useful in selecting a type of centrifugal pump for a certain application is the specific speed Ns.
• where Nr is the revolutions per minute of the
impeller, mv the flow rate in m3/s, and • H the head in N-m/kg. • Process pumps are typically single-stage, pedestal-mounted pumps with single suction overhung impellers. • These pumps are designed for ease in dismantling and accessibility. • these pumps can transfer corrosive. • Most pump manufacturers provide both horizontal and vertical process pumps built to an ANSI standard. • The horizontal pumps are available for capacities up to 900 m3/h while • the vertical in-line pumps have capacities up to 320 m3/h. Both types of pumps can operate with heads up to 120 m. • Double-suction, single-stage pumps are used for general water supply, circulation service, and chemical service with noncorrosive liquids. • These units are available for capacities from about 6 to more than 10,000 m3/h and fluid heads up to 300 m. • Higher heads than can be generated by a single impeller require the use of multistage centrifugal pumps. • In these units the impellers are in series, and the total head generated is the summation of the heads of the individual impellers. • Axial-flow pumps, on the other hand, are essentially very high-capacity, low-head units. • These pumps are designed for flows greater than 450 m3/h with liquid heads of 10 m or less. • These pumps are widely used in closed-loop circulation systems in which the pump casing essentially becomes an elbow in the line. • Energy losses caused by turbulence at the point where the liquid path changes from radial flow to tangential flow in the pump casing can be decreased by using turbine pumps. • Regenerative pumps are also referred to as turbine pumps because of the shape of the impeller. • These units employ a combination of mechanical impulse and centrifugal force to produce heads greater than 100 m at capacities below 20 m3/h. • These units are very useful when small flow quantities of low-viscosity liquids must be transferred at higher pressures. Advantages and Disadvantages • The major advantages of a centrifugal pump are simplicity, low initial cost, low maintenance expense, uniform (nonpulsating) flow, quiet operation, and adaptability to use either motor or turbine drivers. • This type of pump also can handle liquids with large amounts of solids since there are no close metal-to-metal fits within the pump and there are no valves involved in the pump operation. • Disadvantages : • Centrifugal pumps cannot be operated at high heads and have efficiency problems with handling highly viscous fluids. • The maximum efficiency for a given pump is only available over a fairly narrow range of operating conditions. • Pump is subject to air binding and often must be primed. Positive Displacement Pumps • Positive Displacement Pumps , the head is developed for any given flow by the speed of the rotor, • the positive displacement pump achieves its maximum head by the power actually available from the driver working on the fluid. • In general, overall efficiencies of positive displacement pumps are higher than those of centrifugal pumps because internal losses are minimized. • However, the flexibility of the positive displacement units in handling a wide range of capacities is limited. Electromagnetic Pumps • Electromagnetic Pumps: All electromagnetic pumps utilize the principle that a conductor in a magnetic field, carrying a current that flows at right angles to the direction of the field, has a force exerted on it. • These types of pumps are used to move fluids that exhibit electrical conductivity properties, the force suitably directed in the fluid manifests itself as a pressure if the fluid is suitably contained. Design Procedures for Pumps • The amount of useful work that a pump performs is the product of the flow rate handled by the pump and the total pressure differential measured across the device. • This quantity is usually expressed in terms of an equivalent height of the fluid being pumped under adiabatic conditions and is defined simply as the head. • The shaft work of the pump in kilowatts is given by • where , • H is the total dynamic head (column of liquid) in N-m/kg, • mv the volumetric flow rate in m3/s, and • ρ the liquid density in kg/m3 • When the total dynamic head is expressed in pascals, the shaft work of the pump in kilowatts is given by COMPRESSION AND EXPANSION OF FLUIDS • Compressors are used to transfer large volumes of gas while increasing the pressure of the gas from an inlet condition to pressures as high as 300 MPa. • They are generally classified into two major categories, • 1.continuous-flow compressors and positive • 2. displacement compressors. • Fans are used to move gas volumes at conditions where the delivery pressure differential is no more than 3.5 kPa. • For blowers the pressure differential is slightly greater but no more than 10 kPa. Fans and blowers are either centrifugal or axial-flow units. • Expanders are devices used for converting the pressure energy of a gas or vapor stream to mechanical work as the fluid undergoes an expansion. • Expanders using steam generally are divided into two broad categories: • 1. those used to generate electric power and • 2. general-purpose units used to drive pumps, compressors, etc. • When other fluids besides steam are used in an expander, the mechanical work produced generally is a by-product since the primary objective is to provide cooling of the fluid. • Turbo expanders are in wide use in the cryogenic field to produce the refrigeration required for the separation and liquefaction of gases.