Magnetic circuits

• A magnetic circuit provides a path for magnetic flux just as an electric

circuit provides a path for the flow of electric current
• In electrical machines , the magnetic circuits (the closed path followed
by the flux) may be formed by ferromagnetic materials only (as in
transformers) or by ferromagnetic materials in conjuction with an air
medium as in (rotating machines).
• i-H Relation
• When a conductor carries current a magnetic field is produced around
it. A thumb rule is used to show the direction of magnetic field
intensity H or flux lines.

• The relationship between current and field intensity H is obtained by

using Ampere’s Circuit Law which states that the line integral of the
magnetic field intensity H around a closed path is equal to the total
current linked by the contour
 Magnetic circuits cont’d
• i.e . H .dl   i  i1  i 2  i3 Where H is the magnetic field intensity at a
point on the contour and dl is the increamental length at that point if  is the
angle between the vectors H and dl then  HdlCos    i

• Considering a conductor carrying current I as shown in( b) to obtain the an

expression of the magnetic field intensity H at a distance r from the conductor
we can draw a circle of radius r. At each point on this circular contour , H and
dl are in the same direction
• i.e  =0 hence H will be the same at all points on this contour.

  Hdl  i  H 2r  i  H  i A/ m
• 2r
 magnetic ccts cont’d
– B-H Relation
• The magnetic field intensity H produces a magnetic flux density B (lines
per cm2 ) everywhere it exists and these are related by B  H
weber/m2 or B  r 0 H tesla or wb/m2. or T
• Where  is a characteristic of the medium and is called the permeabilty of
the medium or the abilty of a material for the flux to penetrate through it. It
is therefore the measure of the easy with which a material can be
magnetised.0 is the permeabilty of free space and is 4*10-7Henry/meter .
• r is the relative permeabilty of the medium.i.e the raio of the flux density
produced in material to the flux density produced in air or non magnetic
material.
• For free space r is unit.However for ferromagnetic materials such as iron
,cobalt, and nickel , the value of r varies from several hundred to several
thousand. For materials used in electrical machines , r varies from 2000 to
6000. A large value of r implies that a small current can produce a large
flux density in the machine.
 Magnetic Equivalent Circuit
• The magnetic Circuit is analogous to the electric circuit.
Magnetic Equivalent Circuit
• The magnetic Circuit is analogous to the electric circuit.
Toroid magnetic circuit
• When current i flows through the coil of N turns , a magnetic flux is mostly
confined in the core material. If we consider the path at a radius of r. The
magnetic intensity on this path will be H and according to Ampere’s law
• The magnetic Circuit is analogous to the electric circuit.

 H .dl  Ni  Hl  Ni  H 2r  Ni
 Magntetic equiv ccct

• The quantity Ni is called the magnetomotive force (mmf) F and its unit is ampere-
turn  Hl  Ni  F  H  N .i At/m but H  B  B  N l .i.  Ni l Tesla
l
• If we assume that all the flux is confined in the toroid & that there is no magnetic
leakage , the flux crossing the cross section of the toroid is    BdA  BA wb.
• If H is the magnetic flux density of this path then
  Ni l * A 
Ni Ni F
 
l R R
l 1 A
R 
• Where A P is called the reluctance of the magnetic path and P is
called the permeance of the magnetic path.
• From the above equations it can be concluded that the magnetomotive force F is
the driving force in the magnetic circuit and it produces a flux  against a
magnetic reluctance R. Therefore the magnetic circuit for a Toroid can be
represented by the circuit diagram below:
 equivalent cct
• Note  =F/R has the form of ohm’s law for an electric circuitry current I=E/R.
A magnetic circuit is often looked upon as analogous to electric circuit, see the
table below.
• Analogy between magnetic circuit and electric circuit
Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit
• Driving force Emf (E) Mmf (F)
• Produces Current (I) Flux ( )
• Limited by Resistance Reluctance(R =l/A)

• By analogy the laws of resistances in series and parallel also hold for
reluctances. In parallel magnetic circuits , the same mmf is applied to each of
the parallel paths and the total flux divides between the paths in inverse
proportion to their reluctances.
 Example
• Calculate the magnetic force required to produce a flux of 0.015Wb
across an air gap 2.5mm long having an effective area of 200cm2 .
• Area of air gap =200 x 10-4 =0.02 m2
• flux density = B =/A =0.015/0.02 =0.75T
• magnetic field strength of the gap =H =B/ =0.75T/4 x10-7=
597000A/m
• Length of the gap=2.5mm =0.0025m
•  magnetomotive force =F =Hl =597000A/m x0.0025 =1492At
 Example
• Acoil of 200 turns is wound uniformly over a wooden ring having a mean
circumference of 600mm and a uniform crossectional area of 500mm2. If the
current through the coil is 4A, calculate:
• )the magnetic field strength (H),
• )the flux density (B), and
• )the total flux ()
• Solution
• )Mean circumference =l =0.6m F =NI =Hl H=NI/l
=200 x4/0.6 =1333A/m
• )Flux density : B =H =4 x10-7x 1333 =1675T,
• ) =BA but A =500mm2 =500 x10-6m2  =1675T x 500
x10-6m2 =0.8375Wb.
 Magnetisation curve
• The graph of flux density B vs field intensity H of a magnetic material is called
the magnetisation curve or B-H curve.The increase of current will cause the
flux density to increase as thus.

• The flux density B increases almost linearly in the region of low values of the
magnetic intensity H(low current). However, at higher values of H, the change
of B is non linear. The magnetic material shows the effect of saturation. Also of
importance is that the reluctance of the path is dependent on the flux density.
One important difference between the electric circuit and magnetic circuit is
that energy must be supplied to maintain the flow of electric current in a circuit,
whereas for the magnetic flux , once it is set up it does not require any further
supply of energy.
• Note that to establish a certain level of flux density B* in the various magnetic
materials the values of current required are different
 Magnetic cct with air gap
• In electric machines, the rotor is physically isolated from the stator by the air
gap. Such a magnetic circuit is known as a composite structure.
• Consider a simple composite structure below.

• The driving force in this magnetic circuit is the mmf, F=Ni, and the
corresponding reluctances can be given by RC  lc  A : RG  l g
C C 0 Ag
• , and   R  R  Ni  H clc  H g l g
Ni
C g
• where lc is the mean length of the core and lg is the length of the air gap and

the flux densities are Bc  c A and Bg  g A .
c g
• In the air gap the magnetic flux bulge outward and this is known as fringing of
flux. Fringing increases the cross-sectional area of the air gap. For small air
gaps the fringing effect can be neglected hence Ag =Ac and Bc=Bg. Leakage
flux is that flux which does not flow in the core see fig below
 Fig & example

• A coil of insulated wire of 500 turns and of resistance 4 is closely wound on an

iron ring. The ring has a mean diameter of 0.25m and a uniform cross-sectional
area of 700mm2.Calculate the total flux in the ring when a dc supply of 6V is
supplied to the ends of the winding. Assume a relative permeability of 550.
Explain the general effect of making a small air gap by cutting the iron ring
radially at one point.
• Solution:
• I=6/4=1.5A N=500, l=d = x0.25 and area = a = 700mm2 =700 (10-3 )2=7 x
10-4m2. But F =Hl=NiH =Ni/l=500 x1.5 / x0.25.=955A/m
• and B = 0  r H  4x10 x550 x955  0.66T
7

•  = BA =0.66 x7x 10-4 =0.462mWb

• With the introduction of air gap, the current required to produce a given flux
density is increased.
 Kirchhoff’s laws for Magnetic Circuit
• First law:The total Magnetic flux towards a junction is equal to the total
magnetic flux away from that junction

• Each line forms a closed path if limb L carries a current I then the magnetic flux
divides at P some flux passing through limb M and the remainder through limb
N henceL =M + N
• Second Law:In any closed magnetic circuit, the algebraic sum of the product of
the magnetic field strength and the length of each part of the circuit is equal to
the resultant magnetomotive force.
• Total magnetomotive force of the coil is =F = H l L l +H m L m.
• Where H l is the magnetic field strength required for limb L and L l is the
length of the circuit from Q to P and if H m and L m. are the corresponding
values for limb M and H n and L n are the corresponding values for limb N
extending from P via N to Q then total mmf of the coil =F = H l L l +H n L n.
Example
 Inductance
• If the current through a coil changes, an emf is induced. This induced emf is
proportional to the rate of change of the current.That is:e di dt , or   L di dt
• The constant of proportionality is referred to as the coefficient of inductance, L.
Its unit is the henry (H). The emf is negative due to Lenz’s law.
• Inductance is the property of a coil due to which it opposes any change of current
or flux through it. That is e   L di dt , or e   N d  L di  N d or
dt dt dt
L=Nd/di.
• On average , L=N/I. This give another defination of inductance as the number of
N NHA  NHA 2 2

flux linkages per unit current. L  I  NBA i  i Hl

N
l
N
R
N A
• It can therefore be noted that inductance varies as the square of the number of
turns.
– Hysteresis:-time based dependence of a system’s output on present and
past inputs
• Time varying fluxes produce losses in the ferromagnetic materials known as Core
losses and Iron losses. The core losses consists of hysteresis and eddy current
losses i.e Pcore =Ph +Pe . Both the hysteresis and eddy current losses produce heat
in a magnetic circuit. Within an electric machine both hysteresis and eddy current
losses occur at the same time and these vary because of alternating current.
 Hysteresis
• Assume a core initially unmagnetised .
The core is then subjected to an
alternating current.

• If the magnetic intensity H is now increased by slowly increasing the current i

the flux density will change according to curve oa in figure above .If the
magnetic field intensity is now slowly decreased then B-H curve will follow a
different path such as abc. When H is made zero the core has retained the flux
density Br ,known as the residual flux density. If H is now reversed by way of
reversing current the flux in the core will decrease and for a particular value –
Hc, the residual flux will be removed.
• This value of the magnetic field intensity -Hc required to wipe out the residual
magnetism is known as the coercivity or coercive force of the magnetic core.
If H is further increased in the reverse direction B will increase in the reverse
direction up to e (equal to a). From e to f and then g H is decreased to 0 and
then increased to value H1. The loop abcdefga is termed the hysteresis loop. As
can be noted the loop does not close. If the process is repeated the loop
eventually closes and it is called the hysteresis loop.
 Hysteresis Loss
• If there is cyclic reversal of applied field , the domains of a magnetic material
rotate to and from . In this process there is a loss of power called hysteresis loss.
This loss appears in the form of heat and raises the temperature of the magnetic
material.The loss of power in the core due to hysteresis effect is called
hysteresis loss.
• The size of the hysteresis loop is proportional to the hysteresis loss.
• If we assume the coil above to be having no resistance and the flux in the core
to be . Then : e  N d dt according to Faraday’s law. The energy transfer
during an interval of t1 to t2 in the magnetic circuit is
W   ( power )dt   eidt   N .i.dt   Ni.d but =BA and i=Hl/N
• 2t 2 t d 2 

t
1 1 t dt 1 

• Therefore W   N . N . A.dB  lA H .dB  V  H .dB Vcore represents the volume of

B2

B1
Hl B2

B1
core
B2

B1

the core. The integral term represents the shaded area shown below.
• The energy transfer over one cycle is
Vcore x Area of the B-H loop =Vcore xWh
• Power loss in the core due to hysteresis
effect is Ph=Enegy /Time= Vcore xWh x f.
where f is the variation of the current I
Hysteresis Loss Cont’d
• It is difficult to evaluate the area of the hysteresis loop hence the
use of Charles Steinmetz formular.
• Charles Steinmetz of General Electric Company performed
experiments and found that for magnetic materials used in electric
machines the hysteresis power loss is Ph  K h Bmax n
f Where Kh is
a constant whose value depends on the ferromagnetic material and
the volume of the core. Bmax is the maximum flux density, n varies
in the range 1.5 to 2.5. The hysteresis loss for a complete cycle
=area of loop (j/m3)
 Hysteresis Loss Cont’d
Also the power loss can be given as Ph  KVfBmax where V=
n
•
volume of the core, K=a constant whose value depends upon the
ferromagnetic material; f and Bmax as indicated above.
• If the hysteresis loop is plotted to scale of : 1cm =
amps/meter(H) along the horizontal axis and 1cm = tesla(B)
along the vertical axis and A represents the area of the loop in
square centimeters, then :
– Hysteresis loss/cycle = A (joules.m-3)
• Eg 1:The area of a hysteresis loop obtained from a ferromagnetic
specimen is 12,5cm2. The scales used are horizontal axis,
1cm=500A/m; vertical axis 1cm =0.2T. Determine :
• )the hysteresis loss per m3 per cycle and
• )the hysteresis power loss per m3at a frequency of 50Hz
 example
• Solution a)hysteresis loss per cycle = A (joules.m-3) = 12.5*
500*0.2 =1250Jm-3 b)At 50Hz frequency , hysteresis power loss
=1250 *50Hz =62500W m-3 =power.
• Example 2
• If in the above problem the maximum flux density is 1.5T at a
frequency of 50Hz, determine the hysteresis loss per m3 for a
maximum flux density of 1.1T and a frequency of 25Hz .Assume
Steinmetz index to be 1.6
• Solution
• Hysteresis loss = Ph  KVfBmax
n
watts K
62500
 653.4
1.50.1.51.6

Now when f =25Hz and B=1.1T then the hysteresis loss is

Ph  653.4 *1* 25 *1.11.6  19026W / m3

 Eddy Current Loss
• A changing magnetic flux induces voltages in the core material.
The induced voltages circulate currents called eddy currents,
within the core material.
• This results in i2R losses since the core possesses resistance. The
eddy currents heat the core and this represents wasted energy.
• The eddy current loss per m3 is given by Pe  K e Bmax
2
f2 where K
depends on the type of material and its lamination thickness which
varies from 0.5 to 5mm for electrical machine.

•
 Eddy Current Loss
• Eddy currents can be reduced by laminating the core i.e splitting it
into thin layers of sheets with thin layers of insulating material(
vanish).This insulation represents a high resistance and this reduces
induced circulating currents. Also a high resistivity core material
can be used. Addition of a few % of silicon to iron will increase
resistivity significantly.
• Remember:
l
• Core Loss R 
A
• The hysteresis loss and the eddy current loss are lumped together as
core loss of the coil-core assembly:-
PC  Ph  Pe
 Core Loss Continued
• If for a particular inductor or transformer, the core flux density is
mantained constant, then Ph =k1f where k1=KVBn and Pe=k2f 2
where k2 =KeB2.
P
• Thus the total core loss is given by : PC  k1 f  k 2 f 2  fc  k1  k 2 f
• which is a straight line equation. If the total core loss is measured
over a range of frequencies then k1 and k2 may be determined
from the graph of Pc/f vs f. Hence the hysteresis loss Ph=k1f and
the eddy current loss Pe=k2f 2 can be determined at a given
frequency.
•
 Example
• The total core loss of a ferromagnetic cored transformer winding is
measured at different frequencies and the results obtained are
given in the table below:
• Total core loss Pc(watts) 45 105 190 305
• Frequency f (hertz) 30 50 70 90
• Determine the separate values of the hysteresis and eddy current
losses at frequencies of a) 50Hz and b)60Hz
• Solution: From a plot of a graph of Pc/f vs f we obtain k1=0.5
and k2=0.036 Hence hysteresis loss =Ph= 0.5 *50 =25 W and
eddy current loss Pe =k2f2 =0.032 *50 *50=80W. And at a
frequency of 60Hz, Ph= 0.5 *60 =30 W and Pe =k2f 2=0.032 *60
*60=115.2W
 SINUSOIDAL EXCITATION
• In ac electric machines as well as in many other applications, the voltages and
fluxes vary sinusoidally with time. See fig below

• If we assume the core flux (t) varies sinusoidal with time then  (t )  max Sin
.t
Where max is the amplitude of the core flux; =2f is the angular frequency & f
is the frequency
• From Faraday’s law, the voltage induced in the N- turn coil is :
d
e(t )  N  Nmax Cost  Emax Cost
dt

• This is an important equation and will be used frequently in theory of ac

machines.
 SINUSOIDAL EXCITATION
• As can be noted from the fig above the flux changes sinusoidally and the induced
voltage changes cosinusoidally. The r.m.s value of the induced voltage is:

Emax Nmax
Erms    4.44 Nfmax
2 2