STOPPING DISTANCE

OPERATION
1/C LARAWAN N.
1/C LASCO NS.
INTRODUCTION:

• Every vessel shows different

characteristics when it comes
to the distance covered when
stop signal is given due to
difference in dimensions,
loading and ballast condition.
• It is very important for a
navigating officer to learn the
principles of passage planning
and understand his ship’s
characteristics even as a small
mistake in understanding may
lead to collision, grounding or
other kind of mishaps.
STOPPING DISTANCE OPERATION

• Stopping distance of ships:

• As we all know, ship like any other
transport utility does not have brakes
to make them stop immediately.
When the engine is given stop order,
the ship will continue moving in the
same direction due to inertia and will
come to stop after moving for some
distance.
• Every ship has two different
stopping distances depending
on:

• Inertia Stop

• Crash stop
Inertia Stop

• As described above, when the engine

of the ship is stopped, the ship will
continue moving in the same direction
for some more distance due to inertia.
Here no astern command is given
(used to produce “braking effect” for
ships), and hence ship will travel
more distance in the inertia stop
method.
Crash Stop

• Crash stop is usually the term used

when the ship has to sudden stop in
emergency situation. Here the
engine, which is moving in an ahead
direction is given an order for full
astern, leaving the rudder in the mid
ship position to stop the ship within
minimum distance and shortest
possible time. To know the complete
procedure read for crash stopping
read – crash manoeuvring.
• In general operation i.e. berthing or
departure of the ship from port or
manoeuvring through channel or
narrow passage, the above two
methods are combined for a swift
navigation of the ship i.e. in between
giving an astern kick to stop and
slowing down the ship’s speed for
better manoeuvring.
• he stopping distance data and chart is
given in sea trials of the ship and
made handy on bridge for reference.
Every deck officer must refer this data
to master the navigation of the ship.

• The data may differ when used due to

variation in weather condition, ships
loading, stability and other factors;
however, deck officers can compare
the trail data and make use of it in
practical situations.
Few Practical Examples

• Depending upon the loading condition and

the speed of the ship, the stopping time
will be different when these two conditions
are changed.

• Also Ships fitted with Diesel machinery will

have stopping distances approximately
70% of those fitted with Steam Turbine
machinery.
• When the ship’s hull has been due
cleaning (dry dock) for longer time, the
stopping distance and time will be less as
compared to when the ship is just out of
dry dock. This is because the hull
resistance is more in ships with dry-dock
done long ago.

• The wind direction and sea condition also

plays an important role as wind and waves
acting from behind the ship will increase
the stopping distance and vice versa.
• It is important for a navigation officer
to know the surrounding of its ship
and how the ship will react to change
in speed and loading condition. Only
then he/she will be able to sail safe
through all kinds of seas.
RATE OF TURN INDICATOR

• Rate of turn indicator or ROTI on

board vessels indicates the rate a
ship is turning. It indicates the rate a
ship is turning in degrees per minute.
It is one of the most important
instruments a helmsman can have
when steering a course. It can also be
used to turn at a steady rate of turn,
which is very important in pilotage
water.
WORKING

• The principle of the rate of the turn

indicator is based on a gyroscope with
an availability of turning in just one
direction. When the ship is steering a
straight course, the gyroscope will point
in a straight direction and the pointer will
point to the zero on the display. When
the vessel makes a turn to port, the
gyroscope will turn to port side due to
inertia and this will be pointed on the
display of the rate of turn indicator. The
same can be said for the starboard
side.
Different types of ROTIs:

• There are two types of rate of turn

indicators: a digital type and an analog
type. Nowadays the analog type is still
the most installed type on board
vessels, due to its easy way to read the
rate of turn quickly and correctly. The
analog type is compulsory, the digital
type may be installed in the form of a
repeater of the analog type.
Construction requirements

The International Maritime Organization has

developed some requirements on the
development of the rate of turn indicator.
• Display
The requirements for the display of the rate
of turn indicator are that the zero has to be
on top, the indicator has to go to the left
when ship is turning to port side, and vice
versa.
• Scale
The scale of the rate of turn indicator has to be
linear with a minimum of 30 degrees per minute,
an interval of 1° from zero to thirty and every
10 degrees have to be marked by a number. The
indication for every 5° and 10° has to be
longer than the rest.

• Accuracy
IMO says that a maximum allowed deviation from
the real situation shown by the rate of turn
indicator is 0.5 degrees. The rate of turn
indicator has to keep this accuracy until a speed
of 30 knots is reached.
• Start-up time
A rate of turn indicator has to be fully
operational within four minutes after start-
up.

• Testing
It has to be possible to test the rate of turn
indicator.
• AIS

If a ship is equipped with an AIS

system and a rate of turn indicator,
then the rate of turn indicator must be
connected to the AIS to send the rate
of turn to other vessels. This makes it
easier for other vessels to interpret
the manoeuvre of the ship.
TURNING CIRCLE

• The circle is the path of the ship’s

pivot point as it executes a 360°
turn. In shallow water, the rate of turn
is likely to be decreased, so the
vessel will have a larger turning circle.
• Once trials of a new ship are complete,
operators will need to know how the
vessel can expect to perform in a variety
of sea conditions. The ship handler, for
instance,should be aware of how long it
will take for a vessel to become stopped in
the water from a full ahead position or how
far the vessel will advance in a turn.

• Turning circles and stopping distance

(speed trials) provides such essential
information to those that control today’s
ships.
• Note:
Merchant ships usually turn in a circle
having a diameter of about 3–4 times
the length between perpendiculars
(LBP). The larger the rudder, the
smaller will be the Turning circle
diameter(TCD). During the TCD
manoeuvre, the ship will experience
transfer, advance, drift angles and
angle of heel.
• Advance – Defined by the forward
motion of the ship, from the moment
that the vessel commences the turn.
It is the distance travelled by the
vessel in the direction of the original
course from commencing the turn to
completing the turn. It is calibrated
between the course heading when
commencing the turn, to when the
vessels head has passed through
90°.
• Transfer – Defined by that distance
which the vessel will move
perpendicular to the fore and aft line
from the commencement of the turn.
The total transfer experienced during
a turn will be reflected when the
ship’s head has moved through a
course heading of 180°. The amount
of transfer can be calibrated against
the ship’s change of heading and is
usually noted at 90° and 180°.
• Tactical diameter – Is defined by the
greatest diameter scribed by the
vessel from commencing the turn to
completing the turn.

When the vessel is trimmed by the

stern, the tactical diameter of turn is
increased
When the vessel is trimmed by the
head, the tactical diameter of turn is
decreased
• The vessel with a list will take longer
to execute the turn, and when turned
into the list, will develop a larger circle

• The vessel with a right-hand turn

propeller, if making a turn to port, will
end up with a smaller diameter than
starboard due to the effect of
transverse thrust
• Final diameter – Is defined as the
internal diameter of the turning circle
where no allowance has been made
for the decreasing curvature as
experienced with the tactical
diameter.

• Drift angle : it is the angle between

the axis of a ship when turning and
the tangent to the path on which it is
turning.
• The factors affecting turning circle of
ships are :

• Draught and trim .

• Distribution and stowage of cargo .
• Even keel or listed
• Rudder angle.
• Available depth of water
• Drift angle and influencing forces.
• Structural design and length
UKC or Under Keel Clearance

• Safety under keel clearance (SUKC)

• The under keel clearance is a vertical

distance between the deepest underwater
point of the ship’s hull and the water area
bottom or ground. That clearance should
be sufficient to allow ship’s floatability in
most unfavourable hydrological and
meteorological conditions.
• The safe under keel clearance should enable
the ship to manoeuvre within an area so that
no damage to the hull occurs that might
happen due to the hull impact on the ground.

• Note:

A risk of an accident exists when the under keel

clearance is insufficient.
When determining the optimized UKC we have
to reconcile contradictory interests of
maritime administration and port authorities.
BALLAST AND LADEN CONDITION

• Ballast

Weight added to a vessel to increase

draught and maintain the vessel in a safe
condition of stability when there is no
cargo onboard. Water is usually used and
on tankers this is pumped into dedicated
ballast tanks usually positioned in
compartments at the bottom of the vessel,
or on the sides.
BALLAST AND LADEN CONDITION

• Laden

• When a vessel is carrying cargo.

STOPPING DISTANCE SHALLOW WATER

• Shallow Water Effect on Ship

• As the hull moves through shallow water,

the area which it displaces is not so easily
replaced by surrounding water, therefore,
leading to a state of partial vacuum as the
propeller and rudder are still working. The
vessel take-ups longer to answer her
helm, and response to engine movements
becomes sluggish.
In these circumstances, vibration will be set
up, and it will be extremely difficult to
correct a yaw or sheer with any degree of
rapidity.

At normal speed it is found that steering

becomes erratic when the depth of water
is equal to, or less than, one and a half
times the deepest draught, i.e. a vessel
drawing 8 m maximum draught will
develop unsteady steering in water of
depth 12m or under.
• When a ship Nearing an extremely shallow
depth of water, such as a shoal, she is likely to
take a sudden sheer, first towards it and then
violently away. This is called smelling the
ground, and the movements of a sluggish ship
may suddenly become astonishingly lively.

• • Due to the fact that the water displaced by a

hull moving through shallow water is not easily
replaced, the bow wave and stern wave of the
vessel increases in height. Further, the trough
which normally exists under the quarter
becomes deeper and after part of the ship is
drawn downwards towards the bottom. By
reducing speed, the wave heights and trough
depth will be diminished, and the vessel will not,
therefore, close the bottom or squat.
• The speed of a vessel moving in
shallow water should always be
moderate; if the speed is increased
the keel will close with the ground and
the ship will sheer about
unpredictably. If the bow wave and
stern wave are observed to be higher
than is prudent speed should be
reduced – but not suddenly. If the
speed is taken off rapidly the stern
wave will overtake the vessel and
cause her to take a sheer, which in a
narrow channel could be disastrous.
Summary of shallow water effect on
manoeuvring include:
• Bow wave increases.
• Manoeuvering becomes sluggish.
• The engine load increases.
• The ship speed over water reduces.
• Stopping distance and time increases.
• The turning circle increases to a great
extent.
• Rolling and Pitching reduces.
• The ship may start to vibrate.
STEERING BEHAVIOR

• Steering behaviors aim to help

autonomous characters move in a realistic
manner, by using simple forces that
combine to produce life-like,
improvisational navigation. In this tutorial,
I'll cover the flee behavior, which makes
the character move away from a pursuer,
and the arrival behavior, which makes the
character slow down and stop as it
approaches a target.
DIRECTIONAL STABILITY

• Directional stability is stability of a moving

body or vehicle about an axis which is
perpendicular to its direction of motion.
Stability of a vehicle concerns itself with the
tendency of a vehicle to return to its original
direction in relation to the oncoming medium
(water, air, road surface, etc.) when disturbed
(rotated) away from that original direction. If a
vehicle is directionally stable, a restoring
moment is produced which is in a direction
opposite to the rotational disturbance. This
"pushes" the vehicle (in rotation) so as to
return it to the original orientation, thus
tending to keep the vehicle oriented in the
original direction.
• Directional stability is frequently
called "weather vaning" because
a directionally stable vehicle free
to rotate about its center of mass
is similar to a weather vane
rotating about its (vertical) pivot.
• With the exception of spacecraft, vehicles
generally have a recognisable front and
rear and are designed so that the front
points more or less in the direction of
motion. Without this stability, they may
tumble end over end, spin or orient
themselves at a high angle of attack, even
broadside on to the direction of motion. At
high angles of attack, drag forces may
become excessive, the vehicle may be
impossible to control, or may even
experience structural failure. In general,
land, sea, air and underwater vehicles are
designed to have a natural tendency to
point in the direction of motion.