Unit – 1

Characteristics of Measurements
Static and Dynamic Characteristics

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Introduction
• The treatment of instrument and measurement system characteristics
can be divided into two distinct categories,

• Static characteristics.
• Dynamic characteristics.

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Characteristics of measurement system
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

• The measurement of quantities • The measurement of rapidly

that are either constant or vary
slowly with time.
• A set of criteria involving the use of
differential equations can be
defined, that gives meaningful
description of quality of
measurement without interfering
with dynamic descriptions.
varying quantities with time and
dynamic relations between input
and output.
• Performance criteria based on
dynamic relations using
differential equations.

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Calibration
• To check the instrument against known standard.
• To evaluate errors and accuracy.
• The standard used for comparison can be,
• A Primary standard
• A Secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the instrument to be
calibrated.
• An instrument of known accuracy.

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Static Calibration
• All static performance characteristics are obtained by a process called
static calibration.
• “All inputs, whether desirable or undesirable, interfering or non-
interfering, modifying or non-modifying are kept constant at one time
except for one input, which is varied over some constant values”.
• Input - Output relation is developed.
• The overall instrument behavior is obtained.

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Static Characteristics
The main static characteristics are,
1. Accuracy.
2. Sensitivity.
3. Reproducibility.
4. Drift.
5. Static error.
6. Dead zone.

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Static Characteristics - Accuracy
Accuracy
“It is the closeness with which an instrument reading, approaches the true
value of the quantity being measured. Accuracy of a measurement means
conformity to truth”.
• Point accuracy.
• Accuracy as Percentage of Scale Range.
• Accuracy as Percentage of True value.
Precision
“It is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements i.e. given a fixed
value of a quantity, precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within a
group of measurements. It means clearly
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sensors and sharply
conditioningdefined”. 7
Static Characteristics - Sensitivity

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Static Characteristics - Reproducibility
Reproducibility
“The closeness of output readings for the same input when there are
changes in the method of measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location,
conditions of use and time of measurement”.
Repeatability
“The closeness of output readings, when the same input is applied
repetitively over a short period of time with the same measurement conditions,
same instrument and observer, same location and same conditions of use
maintained throughout”.

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Static Characteristics - Drift
Drift
“Variations in environmental conditions like ambient temperature, pressure,
etc., affect the output of the instrument and can be attributed to a general term
called drift”.
• No drift means that with a given input the measured values do not change with
time.
• Many environmental factors cause drift.
• Ex. Stray electric and magnetic fields, thermal emfs, changes in temperature,
mechanical vibrations, wear and tear, and high mechanical stresses developed in
some parts of the instruments and systems.

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Static Characteristics - Drift
• It is an undesirable quantity  rarely apparent and cannot be compensated.
• Guarding against drift  continuous prevention, inspection and maintenance.
• Ex. Proper shielding (stray electrostatic and electro magnetic fields), Proper
mounting (mechanical vibrations), temperature compensation, etc.
• Drift is classified into 3 categories,
1. Zero drift.
2. Span or sensitivity drift.
3. Zonal drift.

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Static Characteristics - Drift
Zero drift
“If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or
due to undue warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in. It can be
prevented by zero setting”.
Characteristics
Output
with zero drift

Nominal
Zero characteristics
drift
Input
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Static Characteristics - Drift
Span or Sensitivity drift
“If there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale,
the drift is called span drift or sensitivity drift”

Characteristics Characteristics with zero

Output Output
with span drift drift & span drift

Nominal Nominal
characteristics characteristics

Input Input
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Static Characteristics - Drift
Zonal drift
“In case the drift occurs only over a portion of span of an
instrument, it is called zonal drift”.

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Static Characteristics – Static Error

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Static Characteristics – Dead Zone
Dead Zone
“It is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which there is no output of
the instrument”.
Measured quantity
• Factors producing Dead Zone,
• Backlash.
• Hysteresis.
Dead Zone
• Insufficient input to drive the system.
• It is used interchangeably with hysteresis or threshold.
Dead time
• It is the total range of input values possible for a given output.
Dead Time Time, t
“The time required by a measurement system to begin to respond to a change in
the measurand”.

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Static Characteristics
• Range and Span
• Difference b/w the Largest and Smallest reading.
• Range:5⁰C to 90⁰C
• Span:85⁰C
• Scale Readability
• Closeness with the scale
• Repeatability and Reproducibility
• Reapatability-Closeness of output reading with same measurement condition
• Reproducibility-Closeness of output reading with different measurement
condition

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Static Characteristics
• Drift
• Undesirable gradual departure of the instrument output over a period of
time.
• Sensitivity
• Ratio of the magnitude of output
signal to the input signal.

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Static Characteristics
• Linearity
• Ability to reproduce the input characteristics symmetrically
• Resolution
• Smallest increment of input signal that a measuring system is capable of
displaying
• Precision
• Repeatability of a measuring process
• Data have small dispersion but may be far from the true value
• Accuracy
• Closeness with an instrument reading approaches the true value of the
quantity being measured.

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Accuracy vs Precision

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Accuracy vs Precision

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Dynamic Characteristics
• The inputs to the systems varies dynamically with time.
• The dynamic inputs are (i) Transient and (ii) Steady state periodic.
• The Dynamic characteristics are,
1. Speed of response.
2. Measuring lag.
3. Fidelity.
4. Dynamic error.

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Dynamic characteristics
• Speed of Response
• Rapidity with which a measurement system responds to change in measured
quantity
• Measuring lag
• Delay in the response of the measurement system to changes in measured quantity
• Fidelity
• It is the ability of a measurement system to reproduce the output in the same form
as the input
• Dynamic error
• The difference between the indicated quantity and the true value of the time varying
quantity

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Dynamic Characteristics
Speed of Response
“It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to changes in the
measured quantity”.
Measuring lag
“It is retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in the
measured quantity”. It is of 2 types.
• Retardation type – The response of the measurement system begins immediately after a change
in measured quantity has occurred.
• Time Delay type – The response of the measurement system begins after a dead time after the
application of the input. Dead time shifts the response of the system along the time scale causing
dynamic error. It is very small (fraction of a second) and ignored.

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Dynamic Characteristics
Fidelity
“It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates
changes in the measured quantity without any dynamic error”.

Dynamic Error
“It is the difference between the true value of the quantity (under
measurement) changing with time and the value indicated by the measurement
system if no static error is assumed”. It is also called as Measurement Error.

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