IDEOGENESIS

To have an idea, there should be an encounter between the

subject and the object. This is called PERCEPTION or
SENSATION.
• ESSENCE – that which makes the thing as it is.
- deals on the nature of a thing.
ex. The essential difference between
the table and the chair.
• Since REASONING is the heart of
LOGIC we need to understand the
nature and distinction of WORDS,
CONCEPTS AND TERMS before we
proceed with the study of
PROPOSITIONS (JUDGMENT) and
SYLLOGISMS (REASONING).
• Word – the basic unit of language, composed of
symbols which is conventionally called letters.

2 CATEGORIES:
• 1. Function words (syncategorimatic)- words that
carry no semantic content or meaning in
themselves; like the articles, prepositions and
conjuctions.
• 2. Content words (categorimatic) – words that carry
meaning in themselves; like nouns, pronouns, action
verbs, adjective.
Concepts - mental representation of the object in reality (Bachhuber,
1957).
Thus they are abstract, immaterial and intelligible; these are made up of
ideas.

CONCEPTS ACCORDING TO INTENTIONS:

1. First Intention – we grasp the nature or quiddity of an object according to its own proper
being(Andrew Bachhuber, 1966.209).
Ex. A dog is a bodily substance
A dog is an irrational being.
A dog is a quadruped.
2. Second Intention – a kind of concept which presents the mode or manner by which the mind
understands the nature or quality as a logical reality (Ramon Agapay.)
Ex. A dog is the subject of the conversation.
A dog is the winner.
A dog is in the middle.

2 KINDS OF CONCEPT:
CONCRETE CONCEPT – One that presents to the mind both form and subject as non-separable…ex.
Man, animal, tree…
ABSTRACT CONCEPT – A CONCEPT WITH THE form without the subject.. ex. Manhood, humanity.
1. ORAL OR VERBAL
2. WRITTEN OR DRAWN
EXAMPLE:

COMPREHENSION EXTENSION

Substance Spirits, minerals, plants, brutes, men

Material, substance Minerals, plants, brutes, men
Living, material, substance Plants, brutes, men
Sentient, living, material, substance Brutes, men
Rational, sentient, living, material, substance men

They VARY INVERSELY. That is the greater the comprehension,

the lesser the extension and the lesser the comprehension, the
greater the extension.
Example:

• The term “COLLEGE INSTITUTION” – its

comprehension refers to “a higher
learning institution”; its extension refers
to UMTC, SMC, USEP..etc.
 TERMS
A. MEANING/DEFINITION
Terms are verbal or written words or signs communicative of a concept or idea. The
spoken word is an articulated human voice and the written word is the sign of the
spoken word.

SIGN is something that manifests a different thing aside from itself.

Examples:
Color red is a sign of martyrdom.

Kinds of Signs:
1. Natural signs are signs which connection with the objects they manifest is
provided by nature.
Examples:
A heavy dark cloud is a natural sign of an oncoming rain.
Smoke is a natural sign of fire.

2. Conventional sign is a sign which connection with the thing it manifests is

provided by common understanding or agreement.
Examples:
Flag
Traffic lights
Spoken/Written Words, therefore, are conventional signs. Thus, different peoples
have different words to designate the same object.
• 1. Natural Sign – is based on natural occurences;. a sign which
connection with the objects they manifest is provided by nature.

2. Conventional Sign – based on human convention and societal

agreement; as product of a common understanding and
acceptance of a certain community.
B. CLASSIFICATION OF TERMS
A. ACCORDING TO MEANING
3. Equivocal

term that is outwardly and externally

identical or the same but expressing
different meanings. When they have the
same sound and spelling but different in
meaning in at least two occurrences.

Ex. star, ruler, light

4. PARADOXICAL – When both
terms are contrary/ contradictory to
each other but when placed
together in a proposition they create
a new meaning.
Ex.. Living – dying
present - absent
B. ACCORDING TO COMPREHENSION
COMPREHENSION – refers to the understanding by the person of a term on the
bases of the nature, characteristics or quality of an entity – an idea, relationship,
object or event – it represents.
- it includes all that person can perceive or know
objectively of a thing.
1. Concrete these are terms that can be perceived; they are sensible and
tangible.
Examples:
House
Church
Animal
Horse
River

2. Abstract signifies a nature or quality though it exists on its own right and
apart from the individual or subject.
Examples:
Friendship Humanity Love
Manhood Authority Loyalty
C. ACCORDING TO EXTENSION

EXTENSION – refers to all the individuals or groups to which the term

can be applied.

APPLICATION OF EXTENSION:
A. ABSOLUTE – when the term covers all the individuals or groups
referred to by the term.

Ex. Man is a rational being… - Man is used here as absolute since it covers
all men in all ages and generations.

B. FUNCTIONAL – when the term only includes those referred to in a

conversation.

Ex. The modern man is sociable and practical. – Man is used here in a
Limited manner, only the modern man.
 THREE KINDS OF FUNCTIONAL EXTENSION:

1. Singular- signifies one, definite, specific individual.

Signs and determinants:
a.)Proper Nouns
b.)Nouns modified by adjective in the superlative degree
c.)Collective nouns
d)Demonstratives
e.)Personal pronouns
Examples:
My father
His dog
The First gentleman
President George Bush
The highest mountain
2. Universal- signifies all the individuals
within the extension of such concept.

Signs and determinants:

a) Universal expressions – all, each, every,
everyone, anyone
b) Universal ideas
- a statement which is true all the time
Examples:
Everybody, All students, Nobody, Every,
Each one
3. Particular- signifies a part or portion of the
total extension of such concept.
- term that stands for an indefinite part
of an absolute extension

Signs and determinants:

a ) Indefinite pronouns or adjectives
b) Use of numbers
c) General propositions
- A statement which is true most of the time but
not all the time.
Examples:
Some teachers, Few candidates, Most schools
D. ACCORDING TO RELATION

1. Identical Terms- are those having the

same comprehension and extension.
Examples:
Lawyer and attorney God and Supreme being
Man and rational being disciple and follower
2. Similar Terms- are those having the
same extension but different
comprehension.
Examples:
Writer and journalist
Teacher and professor
3. Compatible Terms- are those expressing features which
may be present at the same time in one individual or subject.
Examples:
Rich and humble
Intelligent and beautiful
4. Incompatible Terms - are those expressing features
which cannot be present together and simultaneously in one
individual or subject.
Examples:
Rich and poor hot and cold
Weak and healthy good and bad
5. Relative Terms - are those that express a feature of a
thing which cannot be thought of without implying another.
Examples:
Master-slave Teacher-student
Doctor-patient
6. Privative Terms -are those which express the absence or
lack of perfection in an individual or subject.
Examples:
Blindness- is the absence of sight
Death- is the absence of life
Ignorance- is the absence of knowledge

7. Contradictory Terms - are those so related that one is the

simple negation of the other. There is no underlying middle
between contradictory terms.
Examples:
Mortal-immortal
Something-nothing

8. Contrary Terms - are those that express the extreme

opposites in a given category or series of the same class. There
is an underlying middle between contrary terms.
Examples:
First and last
Left and right
E. QUALITY – the positiveness and negativeness
of a term.

POSITIVE TERMS – when they express what is real, true

or essential of a thing such as life, health, courage.
-When they signify or affirm the existence or
presence of desirable qualities such as: beauty, honesty,
cooperation etc.

NEGATIVE TERMS – when they express the absence or

lack of form, ability or quality such as: disorder, blindness, death,
awkward, dishonest, sickly.
F. IN RELATION TO OBJECT – terms are either real, conceptual, imaginary or
metaphorical.

REAL TERMS – those which indicate what is true in nature or in reality; whether our
minds perceive them or not they exist, thus they are not dependent
on human minds. Ex. Night – day; life and death, etc.
CONCEPTUAL TERMS – when they express products of the mind. Ex. Class, race,
Golden mountain, superman, spongebob.

IMAGINARY TERMS – when they signify results of imagination, fantasy and illusion
Ex. Talking tree, golden Buddha, dancing lights which are not used to
Denote something other than their literal meaning but having some
Similarity to them, such as, bird-brained person, snail paced worker,
Henpecked husband.
 PROPOSITION
-A proposition is an expression of judgment. It may
be something that is stated for the purpose of
discussion or something to be dealt with as a
statement of fact or truth.
-It is a statement in which something is affirmed or
denied.
-A proposition is different from a sentence because
a sentence is a word or a group of words expressing
a complete thought. An example of a sentence is
“RUN!” This is a single word expressing a complete
thought and therefore a sentence.
Therefore, all propositions are sentences but not all
sentences are propositions.
“RUN!” is not a proposition because it does not
express a judgment.
 KINDS OF PROPOSITION

1. CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION – that

which either affirms or denies
something without any qualification or
condition.
- its TRUTH or FALSITY is based on its
own content, no on the content of
any other statement.
- elements: subject + copula + predicate

Example: UMTC is a collegiate school.

2. CONDITIONAL PROPOSITION
- the kind of proposition which makes
an assertion but qualified by a condition.
- it is a compound proposition made up
of two simple categorical propositions; the
first component states the condition while
the second states the consequence.
Example:
• If I will study hard, then I will pass the course.
• The assembly will start , only when over 50% of the
members are in attendance.
3. DISJUNCTIVE PROPOSITION

• A proposition which present two or more

alternatives one of which is true.
• Known as the alternative proposition.
• The alternatives are usually joined by the
conjunctions “either”…”or”

Example:
1. Either we have the national language or not.
2. He is either asleep or awake.
4. CONJUNCTIVE PROPOSITION
• A proposition which presents two
alternatives which cannot be true
simultaneously or at the same time.
Example:
1. She cannot be diligent and lazy at the
same time.
2. It is not possible for a country to have
both the democratic and dictatorial
systems of governance.
A. CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
Elements of a Categorical Proposition

Proposition = subject + copula + predicate

1. Quantifier- part of the CP that tells the quantity of
the proposition (universal or particular).
2. Subject and Predicate Terms -matter of the proposition
-materials from which the proposition is made
3. Copula- bonding verb- form of the CP
-Unifying principle that maintains the structure of
the proposition

i.e am/am not is/is not

are/are not
RULES IN TRANSLATING ORDINARY
STATEMENTS INTO THE STANDARD FORM OF
CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION

1. Translate universal statements as universal

propositions unless the statement points to a
particular usage.

Examples:
Students learn.
All students are learners.

Students are diligent people.

Some students are diligent people

Women are emotional than men.

Some women are emotional than men.
2. Add the missing complement to an adjective or to a
describing phrase to show that they refer to
classes/terms.
Examples:
All lions are fierce.
All lions are fierce animals.
Mothers love their children.
Some mothers are children lovers.
3. Singular statements should be treated as universal
statements.
Examples:
The first lady is very extravagant person.
The first lady is very extravagant person.
A proposition
The author of Don Quijote is a good writer.
The author of Don Quijote is a good writer.
A proposition
This student is not lazy.
 This student is not a lazy guy. E proposition
4. Quantifiers that refer to universal or particular should
be replaced by: all, no or some respectively.
Examples:
Almost 50% of the students in logic are members of the debating team.
 Some students in logic are members of the debating team.
Most of the teachers are nationalists.
 Some teachers are nationalists.
Every student is a learner.
 All students are learners.

5. Exclusive statements should be translated into

universal statements by reversing the order of the
original statement.
Examples:
None but men are priests.
All priests are men.
Only citizens are voters.
 All voters are citizens.
6. Exceptive statements should be translated
to an E statement.
Examples:
All except seminarians are members of the club.
No seminarian is a member of the club.
Everybody except the judges are members of the
administration
 No judge is a member of the administration.
7. “Not all” should be translated as an O
proposition
Examples:
Not all applicants are qualified workers.
Some applicants are not qualified workers.
Not all politicians are liars.
Some politicians are not liars.
1.Affirmative the predicate is affirmed of the subject
from the Latin word affirmo which means “I agree”. The
first 2 vowels of the word are A and I. They are the
affirmative propositions.
Example: Jejomar is the Philippines’ vice president.

2.Negative the predicate is denied of the subject.

from the Latin word nego which means “I deny”. The
two vowels of the word are E and O. They are the negative
propositions.
Example: ERAP is not the President of the Philippines.
 Quantity of a Proposition

1. Universalthe predicate is affirmed

or denied of the whole of the subject.
Example: All mothers are parents.

2. Particular the predicate is affirmed

or denied of only part of the subject.
Example: Some politicians are corrupt
officials.
 4 TYPES OF CATEGORICAL
`
PROPOSITION

1. Universal Affirmative (A) ex. All lawyers are professionals.

2. Universal Negative (E) ex.No lawyer is an unprofessional.

3. Particular Affirmative (I) ex. Some lawyers are politicians.

4. Particular Negative (O)ex. Some lawyers are not politicians.

 INFERENCE/REASONING
- Latin – “in-ferre” means “to bear or
to produce.”
- The production of a new
proposition directly related with
the preceding propositions.
- The truth value of the new
emerging proposition implies the
truth of the previous propositions.
(hinacay, 2004)
TWO (2) GENERAL TYPES OF INFERENCE

MEDIATE INFERENCE IMMEDIATE INFERENCE

1. There are three or more 1. There are only two

propositions. propositions.
2. There is a middle 2. There is no middle
proposition. proposition.
3. The third proposition is 3. The second proposition
the conclusion. is the equivalent
4. The conclusion has new proposition.
meaning or truth. 4. The equivalent
proposition has the
same truth or meaning
as the given.
TWO (2) IMMEDIATE INFERENCES

1. OPPOSITIONAL PROPOSITION
OR THE SQUARE OF OPPOSITION

2. EDUCTION
 THE SQUARE OF OPPOSITION
All S are P. No S is P.

A CONTRARIETY E
C
O
S N N S
U T O U
B R I B
A A T A
L D C L
T I T
E D C E
R A T R
N R I N
A T O A
T N N T
I O I
O C O
N N

I S U B- C O N T R A R I E T Y O
C. FOUR LAWS GOVERNING LOGICAL
OPPOSITIONS

1. Law of Contradiction
2. Law of Contrariety
3. Law of Sub-Alternation
4. Law of Sub-Contrariety
1. Law of Contradiction

Two contradictory propositions

cannot be both true and both false at the
same time.

* If A is true, O is false * If A is false, O is true

* If O is true, A is false * If O is false, A is true
* If E is true, I is false * If E is false, I is true
* If I is true, E is false * If I is false, E is true
Example of Contradictory Oppositions

A vs. O
* If All teachers are educated persons, is true.
Then, Some teachers are not educated persons, is false.

E vs. I
• If No bad intention is detrimental to the society, is false.
Then, Some bad intentions are detrimental to the society, is true.
2. Law of Contrariety

States that two contrary propositions

cannot be both true but they may be both
false at the same time.

* If A is true, E is false
* If E is true, A is false
* If A is false, E is doubtful
* If E is false, A is doubtful
Examples of Contrary:

A vs. E
*If All government policies are pro-people, is true.
Then, No government policy is pro-people, is false.

E vs. A
If No vigilant citizen is a negligent person, is false.
Then, All vigilant citizens are negligent persons, is doubtful.
3. Law of Sub-Alternation
a) States that the truth of the universal
carries or implies the truth of the particular
but not vice versa.
* If A is true, I is true
* If E is true, O is true
* If I is true, A is doubtful
* If O is true, E is doubtful
b) States that the falsity of the particular
carries or implies d falsity of the universal
but not vice versa.
* If I is false, A is false
* If O is false, E is false
* If A is false, I is doubtful
* If E is false, O is doubtful
Example of SUB-ALTERNS:
A to I
*If All diligent students are commendable persons, is true.
Then, Some diligent students are commendable persons, is true.
E to O
*If No violent action is punishable by law, is false.
Then, Some violent actions are not punishable by law, is doubtful.
I to A
*If Some courses are foreign based disciplines, is false.
Then All courses are foreign based disciplines, is false.
O to E
*If Some studious persons are not students, is true.
Then No studious person is a student, is doubtful.
4. Law of Sub-Contrariety

States that two contrary propositions

cant be both false but they maybe both
true at the same time.

* If I is false, O is true
* If O is false, I is true
* If I is true, O is doubtful
* If O is true, I is doubtful
 Eduction:
The second form of Immediate Inference
is Eduction, where a new Proposition is
being formulated either by interchanging
the subject and predicate terms of the
original proposition or by the use or
removal of negatives.
1. Conversion
An inference formed by interchanging the
subject and predicate terms of a categorical
proposition. Not all conversions are valid.

rules:
1. Interchange the subject and the predicate
terms.
2. Retain the quality of the convertend in the
converse.

In SIMPLE CONVERSION – the quantity is, as is.

In PARTIAL CONVERSION – reduce the quantity but
retain the quality.
diagram:

SIMPLE PARTIAL

E to E A to I
(No college student is a moron.) (All teachers are professionals.)
(No moron persons are college students (Some professionals are teachers.)

I to I E to O
(Some past presidents are cheaters.) (No lazy student is a commendable person.)
(Some cheater persons are past (Some commendable persons are not lazy
presidents.) students.)
2 .Obversion

An inference formed by changing the

quality of a proposition and replacing the
predicate term by its complement.
Obversion is valid for any standard form
Categorical proposition.
Obversion is the only immediate inference that
is valid for categorical propositions of every
form. In each of the instances, the original
proposition and its obverse must have exactly
the same truth-value, whether it turns out to be
true or false.
rules:
a. Retain the position of the subject and the predicate.
b. Retain the quantity of the obvertend in the obverse.
c. Change the quality of the obvertend in the obverse.
d. The predicate term of the obverse is the contradictory term of the obvertend.

diagram:

A to E I to O
(All students are stakeholders.) (Some students are diligent persons.)
(No student is a non-stakeholder.) (Some students are not non-diligent persons.)

E to A O to I
(No man is an immortal being.) (Some intentions are not sincere acts.)
(All men are mortal beings.) (Some intentions are insincere acts.)
3. Contraposition
An inference formed by replacing the subject term of a
proposition with the complement of its predicate term, and
replacing the predicate term by the complement of its
subject term. Not all contrapositions are valid.

Contraposition is a reliable immediate inference for

both A and O propositions; that is, the contrapositive of
any A or O proposition is true if and only if the original
proposition was true. Thus, in each of the pairs, both
propositions have exactly the same truth-value.

Note: In contraposition the subject of the conclusion is

contradictory of the predicate of the premise and
predicate of the conclusion is contradictory of the subject
of the premise.
rules:

A. SIMPLE & PARTIAL

1. The subject term of the contraposit is the contradictory of
the predicate term in the contraponend.
2. The quality of the contraponend is changed in the
contraposit.
3. The predicate term of the contraposit is the subject term of
diagram:
the contraponend.
A to E O to I
(All human rights are constitutional.) (Some dreams are not reached.)
(No unconstitutional right is a human right.) (Some unreached goals are dreams.)

E to I
(No citizen is unsovereign person.)
(Some sovereign people are citizens.)
B. COMPLETE
1. The subject of the contraposit is the contradictory of the predicate in the contraponend.
2. The quality of the contraponend is not changed in the contraposit.
3. The predicate term of the contraposit is the contradictory of the subject in the
contraponend.

diagram:

A to A O to O
(All human rights are constitutional.) (Some dreams are not reached.)
(All unconstitutional rights are non-human (Some unreached goals are not non- dreams.)
right.)
E to O
(No citizen is a non-sovereign individual.)
(Some non-sovereign people are non-citizens.)
INVERSION
A. SIMPLE
rules:
1. Change to subject of the convertend to its contradiction.
2. Change the quantity & quality of the invertend.
3. Retain the original predicate.

diagram

A to O E to I
Example PARTIAL INVERSION

A to O
1. All mentors are persons who guides.
Some non-mentors are not persons who guides.

E to I
1. No sensible idea is an irrelevant contribution.
Some insensible ideas are irrelevant contributions.
B. COMPLETE

rules:
1. Change the subject to its contradiction.
2. Change the quantity of the proposition
3. Retain the quality.
4. Change the predicate to its contradiction.

diagram

A to I E to O
Example: COMPLETE INVERSION

A to I
1. All X’s are Y’s.
Some non-X’s are non-Y’s.

E to O
1. No A is B.
Some non-A’s are not non-B’s.
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS

Categorical syllogism is a deductive

argument consisting of 3 categorical
propositions which contain exactly 3 terms.

Example:
All Filipinos are Asians.
All Boholanos are Filipinos
Therefore All Boholanos are Asians.
HOW TO IDENTIFY THE TERMS IN THE SYLLOGISM?

1.) Major Term (MT)

found in the major premise as either the subject or the
predicate.
the predicate of the conclusion.
*In the example above, the major term is “Asians” because it is the predicate of the
conclusion.

2.) Minor Term (mt)

found in the minor premise as either the subject or predicate.
the subject of the conclusion.
*In the example above, the minor term is “Boholanos” because it is the subject of the
conclusion

3.) Middle Term (t)

the only term which is not found in the conclusion and the only term which appears
twice in the premises.
*In the example above, the middle term is “Filipinos” because it is found in the two
premises.
Example
All lawyers are politicians.
Some lawyers are liars
Therefore some liars are not politicians

Major term: politicians

Minor term: liars
Middle term: lawyers
 MAJOR AND MINOR PREMISES

Major Premise – The premise where the Major

Term(MT) is located.
Minor Premise – The premise where the minor
term (mt) is located.
Example: No Hamas is an Israelite.
Some Israelites are revolutionaries.
therefore, Some revolutionaries are not Hamas.

*In this example, the Major Premise is the first premise

because it is where Hamas(MT) is located. The minor
premise is the second premise because it is where the
revolutionaries (mt) is located.
A. FORM OF CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
Figure of the categorical syllogism
Mood of Categorical Syllogism
I. FIGURE OF CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
it refers to the way the middle term is arranged in the
syllogism.
Fig. 1 ( sub-pre) M–P Fig. 2 (pre-pre) P–M
S–M S –M
-------- --------
S–P S–P
Fig. 3 (sub-sub) M–P Fig. 4(pre-sub) P–M
M–S M–S
--------- ---------
S–P S–P
 II. MOOD OF CATEGORICAL
SYLLOGISM

refers to the type of propositions

(A, E, I, O) in which the major
premise, the minor premise and the
conclusion respectively appear in
the syllogism.
EXAMPLES:
(IAI)
Some students are academic scholars
All students are hardworking persons.
Therefore, some hardworking persons are academic scholars.

(AAA)
Only men are priests.
Mark is a man.
Therefore Mark is a priest.
 DISTRIBUTION OF TERMS

Subject Term Predicate Term

A Distributed Undistributed
E Distributed Distributed
I Undistributed Undistributed
O Undistributed Distributed

Distribution simply means “Universal”. When

the term has to be distributed, it is understood
that the term has to be universal.
GENERAL RULES FOR A VALID SYLLOGISM

1. There should be exactly 3 terms to be used

throughout the whole argument.

Violation: fallacy of 4 terms (equivocation)

Examples:
A ruler measures 12 inches.
But GMA is a ruler.
Therefore, GMA measures 12 inches.

• This syllogism is invalid because a word is used in

two different propositions with different meaning.
• This syllogism committed the fallacy of
equivocation or fallacy of 4 terms.
2. The middle term must be distributed at least once in
the premises.

Violation: Fallacy of the undistributed middle term.

Examples:
All men are unique beings.
Some unique beings are red beings.
Therefore, No red being is a man.

All dogs are animals.

All cats are animals.
Therefore, all cats are dogs.

* These syllogisms are invalid syllogisms because the

middle terms “unique beings” and “animals” are
undistributed in the two premises.
3.If the term is distributed in the conclusion then the
same term must also be distributed in the premises.

Violation: Fallacy of the illicit major term or fallacy of illicit

minor term.
Examples:
All cats are animals.
No bat is a cat.
Therefore, No bat is an animal.

All criminals are law-violators.

All criminals are evil persons.
Therefore, all evil persons are law-violators.

*These syllogisms are invalid syllogisms. The first and second

example committed the fallacy of illicit major term and the third
example committed the fallacy of illicit minor term.
4. Two negative premises are not
allowed.
Violation: Fallacy of exclusive terms
Examples:
Rizza is not a joyful person
Mae is not Michelle.
Therefore, Mae is not a joyful person.
*This syllogism is invalid syllogism and
had committed the fallacy of exclusive
terms.
5. One of the negative premises is allowed if and
only if the conclusion is negative.
Violation: Fallacy of drawing an affirmative
conclusion based from a negative premise.

Example:
All teachers are models.
Some teachers are not wise persons.
Therefore, some wise persons are models.

* This syllogism is invalid and committed the fallacy of

drawing out an affirmative conclusion based from a
negative premise.
6. No particular conclusion can be derived
from 2 universal premises.
Violation: Existential fallacy

7. Two affirmative premises cannot give a

negative conclusion.

8. When one premise is particular, the

conclusion must be particular.

9. When both premises are particular, there

is no conclusion.
Quiz:
Some presidents are not American allies.
Some leaders are presidents.
All leaders are American allies

Invalid
Rules: 2,3,5,9
 FALLACY
Fallacy comes from the Latin word fallo or fallere which
means to deceive.
It refers to any error in reasoning. Fallacies may be formal
or informal.

Formal- refers to errors in relation to the form or

structure of reasoning or argument. The point in question is
not whether a conclusion is true or false but whether the
form of argument is correct or incorrect, valid or invalid.

Informal- refers to errors with regard to the content or

the meaning of the argument. It is committed when factors
contributing to reasoning are distorted.
 Some Informal Fallacies which are frequently
committed:

Argumentum Ad Misericordiam (Appeal to Pity or Sympathy)

This is the error of by-passing logic and the point at issue by
appealing to pity or sympathy.
Example:
Sir, maawa napo kayo sa akin, Ipasa nyo napo ako! May tatlong
anak po akong pinapag-aral at sinusuportahan.”

Argumentum Ad Populum ( Appeal to the People)

This is committed when one evades the point under discussion
and instead appeals to the opinions, passions or prejudices of the
people.
Example:
Migz Zubiri is sure to win the senatorial position because he is
consistently topping election surveys.
Argumentum Ad Hominem (Argument Against the Person)
This happens when the person of the arguer is attacked,
rather than his argument.
Example:
“Wag ninyong pinaniniwalaan yung sinasabi ni Peter,
pasaway, bolero at tsaka hindi maganda ang background
ng pamilya niya.”
“Mali ang sinabi nya dahil estudyante lang siya.”

Argumentum Ad Baculum (Appeal to Force or Threat)

This is committed when one seeks to establish a conclusion
by resorting to force or intimidation.

Examples:
“ Kapag hindi ka nakuha sa santong dasalan, kukunin kita
sa santong paspasan.”
“Kapag hindi mo ako minahal, hindi kita ipapasa.”
Argumentum Ad Vericundiam (Appeal to wrong
authority)
This happens when a wrong or unqualified authority
is cited to establish a conclusion.
Example:
Another killer earthquake will hit Cabanatuan City
within three years, Sarah Geronimo said.

Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam (Appeal to Ignorance)

This occurs when one proves that a thing is true
because it cannot be proven false or a thing is false
because it cannot be proven true.
Example:
“Wala talagang Diyos kase hindi ko siya nakikita
kahit na sa microscope.
Addendum:
Non sequitur (It does not follow)
An argument whose conclusion does not follow logically
from the premises as when two ideas are disconnected.
Example:
The sky is blue, therefore I love you.

8. Post hoc ergo propter hoc (False Cause)

Example:
The Basketball Varsity of the College of the Immaculate
Conception won the championship game because the
players drank Milo Energy drink before the game.

9. Complex Question
This is asking a question that presupposes an answer to
another question that has not been asked and answered.
Example:
“Is he your 3rd boyfriend?”