Phonetics and Phonology

UNIVERSITY OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION
A. Bonifacio Street, 8000 Davao City

Graduate School
ENGL 205 | Communicative Grammar of English and Phonology
Phonetics and
Phonology
Reported by:
FHEIL KARL T. FAILMA

Graduate School Student
Lesson 1.
PHONETICS:
The Sounds of Language
“ I gradually came to see that Phonetics had an important bearing on

human relations—that when people of different nations pronounce each
other’s languages really well (even if vocabulary & grammar not perfect), it
has an astonishing effect of bringing them together, it puts people on terms
of equality, a good understanding between them immediately springs up.
Sound Segments
/b/ / b / + / ε / + / t / = bet
bus /^/ / ^ / + / p / = up
/s/ / s / + / ɪ / + / t / = sit
PHONETICS
the study of speech sounds
• If one is not so familiar with how words are
segmented through its sounds, one may
misinterpret the word. Some phrases and
sentences that are clearly distinct when
printed may be ambiguous when spoken.
Notice the following examples:
WORDS MISINTERPRETATION
Grade A Gray Day
I scream Ice Cream
The sun’s rays meet The sons raise meat
Spelling and Speech
•Orthography does not represent

the sound of the language in a
consistent way.
ORTHOGRAPHY
the study of alphabet spelling
Did he believe that Caesar

could see the people
seize the seas?
Did he believe that Caesar

could see the people
seize the seas?
Same sound for different spelling
My father wanted many a

village dame badly.
My father wanted many a

village dame badly.
Same letter for different sounds

shoot character Thomas

physics deal nation
coat either rough
shoot character Thomas

physics deal nation
coat either rough
Combination of letters for a single sound
mnemonic autumn resign

write island debt
mnemonic autumn resign

write island debt
Letters that have no sound in words

cute (sounds like kyute; but different from coot)
fume (sounds like fyume; but different from fool)
use (sounds like yuse; but different from Uzbekistan)
No letter to represents a single sound.

INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC LANGUAGE
developed by the members of the
International Phoenetic Association
(IPA) in 1888 to symbolize the
sounds of all languages
The phoenetic alphabet utilized both

ordinary letters and invented symbols.
The Phonetic Alphabets
IPA Example IPA Example
/i/ beet /ɪ/ bit

/e/ bait /Ɛ/ bet
/u/ boot /ʊ/ foot
/o/ boat /ɔ/ bore
/æ/ bat /a/ pot
/^/ butt /ə/ sofa
/ aɪ / bite / aʊ / bout
/ ɔɪ / boy
/p/ pill /t/ till

/b/ bill /d/ dill
/m/ mill /n/ nill
/k/ kill /g/ gill
/ŋ/ ring /h/ heal
/f/ feel /s/ seal

/v/ veal /z/ zeal
/Ɵ/ thigh /ʧ/ chill
/ð/ thy /ʤ/ gin
/ʃ/ shill /ʍ/ which
/l/ leaf /r/ reef

/w/ witch /j/ you
/ʒ/ measure
Alternative Symbols for APA
r ʃ ʒ ʧ
ɹ š ž č
ʤ ʊ
ĵ Ʊ
Let’s try!
Spelling Pronunciation Spelling Pronunciation
though [ ðo ] thought [ Ɵɔt ]

rough [ r^f ] bough [ baʊ ]
through [ Ɵru ] would [ wʊd ]
Articulatory Phonetics
The Anatomy of the Vocal Tract
GLOTTIS
the opening between the
vocal chords
LARYNX
the opening between the
vocal chords
PHARYNX
the tubular part of the
throat above the larynx
ORAL CAVITY
most commonly known as
“the mouth”
NASAL CAVITY
the nose and the plumbing
that connects it to the throat,
plus one’s sinuses
VOCAL TRACT
its different shapes result in the
differing sounds of language
CONSONANTS
are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal
tract that impedes the flow of air from the lungs
Place of Articulation
• The classification of consonants according to where in
the vocal tract the airflow restriction occurs. Movement
of the tongue and lips creates the constriction, reshaping
the oral cavity (mouth) in various ways to produce the
various sounds.
When we produce these sounds,

we articulate by bringing
both lips together
[p] [b] [m]
When articulate these sounds

by touching the bottom lip
to the upper teeth
[f] [v]
These sounds, both spelled th,

are pronounced by inserting the tip
of the tongue between the teeth
[Ɵ] [ð]
All of these sounds are pronounced

with the tongue raised in various
ways to the alveolar ridge
[t] [d] [n] [s] [z] [l] [r]
The constriction of these sounds

occurs by raising the front part of
the tongue to the palate
[ʃ] [ʒ] [ʧ] [ʤ] [j]
These sounds are produced by

raising the back of the tongue
to the soft palate or velum
[k] [g] [ŋ]
These sounds are produced by raising

the back of the tongue to the uvula,
the freshly protuberance that hangs down
in the back of our throats.
[r] [q] [g]
the sound is from the flow of air

through the open glottis, and past the
tongue and lips as they prepare
to pronounce a vowel sound
[h]
CONSONANTS
are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal
tract that impedes the flow of air from the lungs
Manner of Articulation
• Speech sounds also vary in the way airstream is
affected as it flows from the lungs up and out of
the mouth and nose. It may be blocked or partially
blocked; the vocal cords may vibrate or not
vibrate.
Sounds are voiceless when the vocal

chords are apart so that air flows freely
through the glottis into the oral cavity
[ s ] and [ p ] in supper
Sounds that are produced when

the vocal cords are together where the
airstream forces its way through and
causes them to vibrate.
[ b ] and [ z ] in buzz
Sounds that are produced with the

velum up, blocking the air from
escaping through the nose and the
air can escape through the oral
cavity (mouth).
sounds that are produced when the

velum is not in its raised position
where the air escapes through both
the nose and the mouth.
ORAL NASAL
VOICED [b] [d] [g] [m] [n] [ŋ]
VOICELESS [p] [t] [k]

Two articulators (lips, tongue, teeth, etc.)

are brought together such that the
flow of air through the vocal tract is
completely blocked.
[p] [t] [k] [b] [d] [g]
Two articulators are brought near each other

such that the flow of air is impeded but not
completely blocked. The air flow through the
narrow opening creates friction.
[f][v][Ɵ][ð][s][z][ʃ][ʒ][h]
Are those that begin like stops (with a

complete closure in the vocal tract)
and end like fricatives (with a narrow
opening in the vocal tract).
[ʧ] [ʤ]
A nasal articulation is one in which the

airflow through the mouth is completely
blocked but the velum is lowered,
forcing the air through the nose.
[m] [n] [ŋ]
There is some obstruction of the

airstream in the mouth, but not
enough to cause any real
constriction or friction.
[l] [r]
These are produced with little

obstruction of the airstream. They are
always followed by a vowel and do
not occur at the end of words
[w] [y]
Bilabial Labiodental Interdental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
STOP
Voiced p [ pie ] t [ tie ] k [ kite ] (ʔ)uh-
(ʔ)oh
Voiceless b [ buy ] d [ die ] g [ guy ]
FRICATIVE
Voiced f [ fine ] Ɵ [ thigh ] s [ sue ] ʃ [ shoe ] h [ high ]
Voiceless v [ vine ] ð [ thy ] z [ zoo ] ʒ [measure]

AFFRICATE
Voiced ʧ [ cheese ]
Voiceless ʤ [ jump ]
NASAL
m [ my ]
Bilabial n [night]
Labiodental Interdental Alveolar Palatal ŋ Velar
[ sing ] Glottal
GLIDE
Voiced w [ wipe ] j [ you ]
Voiceless
LIQUID
Voiced l [ lye ] r [ rye ]
Voiceless
VOWELS
are produced with little restriction of the airflow
from the lungs out the mouth and/or the nose.
The quality of a vowel depends on the shape
of the vocal tract as the air passes through.
Tongue Part of the Tongue Involved
Height
FRONT CENTRAL BACK
Tense / i / - he / u / - who
HIGH Lax / ɪ / - hit / ʊ / - put
Tense / e / - bait / o / - boat
MID Lax / Ɛ / - bet / ^ / - butt / ɔ / - bore
Tense */ a / - hah
LOW Lax / æ / - hack
SPREAD ROUND
Lesson 2.
PHONOLOGY:
The Sound Patterns of Language
“ Speech is human, and silence is divine,

yet also brutish and dead; therefore we must
learn both arts.
”
PHONOLOGY
the study of how speech sounds form patterns.
/ŋ/
Filipino English
Pronunciation of Morphemes
SET A SET B SET C SET D

cab cap bus child
bag back buzz mouse
love cuff match sheep
The final sound of
SET A the plural nouns is
cab(s)
bag(s) [z]
love(s) voiced alveolar
fricative
The final sound of
SET B the plural nouns is
cap(s)
back(s) [s]
cuff(s) voiceless alveolar
fricative
SET C The final sound of

bus(es) the plural nouns is
buzz(es)
[ əz ]
match(es)
SET D
child(ren) Irregularity of
(mice) plural forms
sheep
SET A SET B SET C SET D
cab cap bus child
bag back buzz mouse
love cuff match sheep
MINIMAL PAIRS
two words with different meanings that are
identical except for one sound segment that
occurs in the same place in each word.
ALLOMORPHS
the variants the a morpheme may take in
different context
Allomorph Environment
After [b], [d], [g], [v], [ð],
[z] [m], [n], [ŋ], [l], [r],
[a], [ɔɪ]
[s] After [p], [t], [k], [f], [θ]
[ əz ] After [s], [ʃ], [z], [ʒ] , [tʃ], [dʒ]

Allomorph Environment
After [b], [d], [g], [v], [ð],
[m], [n], [ŋ], [l], [r],
[z] [a], [ɔɪ]
After voiced nonsibilant segments
After [p], [t], [k], [f], [θ]

[s] After voiceless nonsibilant segments
After [s], [ʃ], [z], [ʒ] , [tʃ], [dʒ]

[ əz ] After sibilant segments
Check the additional examples:
SET A SET B SET C

gloat - gloated grab - grabbed reap - reaped
raid - raided hug - hugged poke - poked
faze - fazed kiss - kissed
roam - roamed patch - patched
SET A suggests that if the

verb ends in
gloat – gloated a [t] or a [d],
[glotəd]
[ əd ]
raid – raided
is added to form the
[redəd]
past tense
SET B suggests that if the

grab – grabbed
verb ends in a
[græbd] voiced segment other
hug – hugged than [d],
[hʌgd]
faze – fazed
[fezd]
voiced [ d ]
roam – roamed
[romd]
is added
SET C suggests that if the

reap – reaped
verb ends in a
[ript] voiceless segment
poke - poked other than [t],
[pokt]
kiss - kissed
[kɪst]
voiceless [ t ]
patch - patched
[pætʃt]
is added
• Two further allomorphs in English are the
possessive morpheme and the third person
singular morpheme, spelled s or es. These
morphemes take on the same phonetic
form as the plural morpheme according to
the same rules!
ship‘s [s]
woman‘s [z]
judge‘s [ əz ]
Phonemes: Phonological Units
• Vowels are nasalized before a nasal
consonant within the same syllable.
WORDS NON WORDS
be [bi] bead [bid] bean [bĩn] *[bĩ] *[bĩd] *[bin]
lay [le] lace [les] lame [lẽm] *[lẽ] *[lẽs] *[lem]
baa [bæ] bad [bæd] bang [bæ̃ŋ] *[bæ̃ ] *[bæ̃d] *[bæŋ]

Analyze the following minimal pairs
beat [bit] [i] boot [but] [u] bit [bɪt] [ɪ]
but [bʌt] [ʌ] bait [bet] [e] boat [bot] [o]
bet [bɛt] [ɛ] bought [bɔt] [ɔ] bat [bæt] [æ]
bout [baʊt] [aʊ] bite [baɪt] [aɪ] bot [bat] [a]
*book [bʊk] [ʊ] *boy [bɔɪ] [ɔɪ]

• Our minimal pair analysis has revealed
eleven monophthongal
/i/, /ɪ/, /e/, /ɛ/, /æ/, /u/, /ʊ/, /o/, /ɔ/, /a/, /ʌ/
and three diphthongal vowel phonemes
/aɪ/, /aʊ/, /ɔɪ/
ALLOPHONES
Each phoneme has associated with it one or more sounds,
called allophones, which represent the actual sound
corresponding to the phoneme in various environments
• Consonants too, have allophones.
aspirated occurs before a

tick
[tʰ] stressed vowel
unaspirated occurs directly before
stick / hits
[t] or after /s/
occurs between a
flap
stressed vowel and an bitter
[ɾ]
unstressed vowel
Distinctive Features
• A single feature may have two values:
plus (+), which signifies its presence, and
minus (–), which signifies its absence.
For example:
[b] is [ + voiced ]
[p] is [ – voiced ]
Look for distinctive features
B M D N G Ŋ
STOP + + + + + +
VOICED + + + + + +
LABIAL + + - - - -
ALVEOLAR - - + + - -
VELAR - - - - + +
NASAL - + - + - +
Look for distinctive features
B M D N G Ŋ
STOP + + + + + +
VOICED + + + + + +
LABIAL + + - - - -
ALVEOLAR - - + + - -
VELAR - - - - + +
NASAL - + - + - +
Natural Classes
• Rule 1. Nasalize vowels before p, i, or z.
• Rule 2. Nasalize vowels before m, n, or ŋ.
NATURAL CLASS
is a group of sounds described by a small number of
distinctive features
Rules of Phonology
• Assimilation
- A process that results from a sound
becoming more like another nearby sound
in terms of one or more phonetic
characeristics.
impossible = [ ĩmpʰasəbəl ]
Rules of Phonology
• Dissimilation
- A process that results in two sounds
becoming less alike in articulatory or acoustic
terms; a process in which units which occur in
some contexts are lost in others.
fifth = [ f i f t ]
*The fricative /θ/ becomes dissimilar to the preceding fricative by becoming a stop.
Rules of Phonology
• Insertion (Epenthesis)
- is the process that inserts a syllable or
a nonsyllabic segment within an existing
string of segment
church = church(es) [əz]
plant = plant(ed) [ɪd]
Rules of Phonology
• Deletion
- is a process that removes a segment
from certain phonetic context which
usually occurs in rapid speech.
mystery = myst’ry general = gen’ral
memory = mem’ry funeral = fun’ral
Consider these following examples
SET A SET B
sign [sãɪn] signature [sɪgnətʃər]
design [dəzãɪn] designation [dεzɪgneʃə̃n]
paradigm [pʰærədãɪm] paradigmatic [pʰærədɪgmæɾək]
• Delete a /g/ word initially before a nasal consonant or

before a syllable-final nasal consonant.
Rules of Phonology
• Metathesis
- A process that reorders or reverses a
sequence of segments; it occurs when two
segments in a series switch places.
aminal [æ̃mə̃ nəl] = animal

pusketti [pʰəskɛti] = spaghetti
Prosodic Phonology
• Syllable Structure
• Word Stress
Word Stress Part of Speech Example
pérvert noun “My neighbor is a pervert.”

pervért verb “Don’t pervert the idea.”
súbject noun “Let’s change the subject.”
subjéct verb “He’ll subject us to criticism.”
• Stress often distinguishes between nouns and

verbs. The vowel that receives primary stress is
marked by an acute accent (’).
• Word Stress
Word Stress Part of Speech Example
pérvert noun “My neighbor is a pervert.”
pervért verb “Don’t pervert the idea.”
súbject noun “Let’s change the subject.”
subjéct verb “He’ll subject us to criticism.”
• Other stressed vowels are indicated by a

grave accent ( ` ) over the vowels.
rèsignátion lìnguístics sỳstəmátic
• Sentence and Phrase Stress
COMPOUND NOUNS
tíghtrope “a rope for acrobatics”

Rédcoat “a British soldier”
hótdog “a frankfurter”
Whíte House “the US President’s house”
• We place primary stress on the

adjectival part of a compound noun
• Sentence and Phrase Stress
NOUN PHRASES
tight rópe “a rope drawn taut”
red cóat “a coat that is red”
hot dóg “an overheated dog”
white hóuse “a house painted white”
• We place the stress on the noun when the words

are a noun phrase consisting of an adjective
followed by a noun.
• Intonation
In English, intonation may reflect syntactic or
semantic differences.
Meaning:
Tristram wanted Isolde to follow him
• Intonation
In English, intonation may reflect syntactic or
semantic differences.
Meaning:
Isolde should read and follow
a set of directions
Sequential Constraints
• After a consonant like /b/, /g/, /k/,
or /p/, another stop consonant in the
same syllable is not permitted by the
phonology.
PHONOTATIC CONSTRAINTS
the limitations on sequences of
segments
• If a word begins with an /l/ or an /r/,
the next segment must be a vowel.
• If the initial sounds of /tʃ/ or /dʒ/
begin a word, the next sound must be
vowel.
The words /tʃon/ or /tʃæk/are possible in English
(chone, chack), as are /dʒil/ or /dʒalɪk/ (jeel, jolick)
• No more than three sequential
consonants can occur at the
beginning of a word, and these three
are restricted to /s/ + /p,t,k/ +
/l,r,w,y/.
This means that spew /spju/, sclaff /sklæf/ (to strike
the ground with a golf club), and squat /skwat/
are possible words in English
Phonological Analysis
Let us discover phonemes from Greek
language. Take note of this data:
• [x] - voiceless velar fricative

• [k] - voiceless velar stop
• [c] - voiceless palatal stop
• [ç] - voiceless palatal fricative
Pronunciation English Meaning Pronunciation English Meaning
[kano] “do” [çeri] “hand”

[xano] “lose” [kori] “daughter”
[çino] “pour” [xori] “dances”
[cino] “move” [xrima] “money”
[kali] “charms” [krima] “shame”
[xali] “plight” [xufta] “handful”
[çeli] “eel” [kufeta] “bonbons”
[ceri] “candle” [oçi] “no”
• Find for minimal pairs.
By analyzing the data, we find that [k] and
[x] contrast in a number of minimal pairs,
for example, in [kano] and [xano], as well as
[c] and [ç] also contrast in [çino] and [cino].
Therefore,
[k] and [x], and [c] and [ç] are distinctive
• For noncontrasting phones,
check for complementary
distribution.
[k] before [a], [o], [u], [r]
[x] before [a], [o], [u], [r]
[c] before [i], [e]
[ç] before [i], [e]
[k] and [c] are allophones of one phoneme, and the

fricatives [x] and [ç] are also allophones of one phoneme
• Look for the main phoneme.
In many languages, velar sounds become
palatal before front vowels. This is an
assimilation rule; palatal sounds are
produced toward the front of the mouth,
as are front vowels.
/k/ is the phoneme with the allophones [k] and [c], and
/x/ is the phoneme with the allophones [x] and [ç].
students can learn the
foundational elements
of conversation by
watching films or videos
of these interactions
taking place
Students can listen to or
read along with
audiobooks to hear how
the speaker pronounces
and enunciates different
words or phrases
Reinforce building good
listening skills by
encouraging students to
practice asking clarifying
questions to fully
understand the speaker’s
intended message
Recording students reading
selected text or videotaping
group presentations is an
excellent method for
assessing their
communication strengths
and weaknesses
If a student answers a
question in a complicated
way, you might ask that
they rephrase what they
said, or challenge the
class to ask clarifying
questions.
References:
Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., and Hyams, N. (2011). An Introduction to
Language, Ninth Edition. USA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Montano, E., Flores, M., Ladera, H. (2010). Proficiency in English III.

Rex Book Store, Inc. Philippines: Quezon City
Villamin, A., Salazar, E., Alumbro, Z. (2013). Skill Builders for English
Proficiency 7. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc. Philippines: Quezon City
Watanabe-Crockett, L (2017). 8 Methods For Effectively Improving

Student Communication Skills. Retrieved from https://bit.ly/2RvOa0Q
on June 23, 2019
UNIVERSITY OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION
A. Bonifacio Street, 8000 Davao City
Graduate School
ENGL 205 | Communicative Grammar of English and Phonology
Phonetics and
Phonology
Reported by:
FHEIL KARL T. FAILMA

Graduate School Student

Phonetics and Phonology

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UNIVERSITY OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION

A. Bonifacio Street, 8000 Davao City

FHEIL KARL T. FAILMA

“ I gradually came to see that Phonetics had an important bearing on

•Orthography does not represent

Did he believe that Caesar

Did he believe that Caesar

My father wanted many a

My father wanted many a

Same letter for different sounds

shoot character Thomas

shoot character Thomas

mnemonic autumn resign

mnemonic autumn resign

Letters that have no sound in words

cute (sounds like kyute; but different from coot)

fume (sounds like fyume; but different from fool)

use (sounds like yuse; but different from Uzbekistan)

No letter to represents a single sound.

The phoenetic alphabet utilized both

/i/ beet /ɪ/ bit

/p/ pill /t/ till

/f/ feel /s/ seal

/l/ leaf /r/ reef

though [ ðo ] thought [ Ɵɔt ]

When we produce these sounds,

When articulate these sounds

These sounds, both spelled th,

All of these sounds are pronounced

The constriction of these sounds

These sounds are produced by

These sounds are produced by raising

the sound is from the flow of air

Sounds are voiceless when the vocal

Sounds that are produced when

Sounds that are produced with the

sounds that are produced when the

VOICED [b] [d] [g] [m] [n] [ŋ]

VOICELESS [p] [t] [k]

Two articulators (lips, tongue, teeth, etc.)

Two articulators are brought near each other

Are those that begin like stops (with a

A nasal articulation is one in which the

There is some obstruction of the

These are produced with little

Voiceless v [ vine ] ð [ thy ] z [ zoo ] ʒ [measure]

“ Speech is human, and silence is divine,

SET A SET B SET C SET D

SET C The final sound of

[ əz ] After [s], [ʃ], [z], [ʒ] , [tʃ], [dʒ]

After [p], [t], [k], [f], [θ]

After [s], [ʃ], [z], [ʒ] , [tʃ], [dʒ]

SET A SET B SET C

SET A suggests that if the

SET B suggests that if the

SET C suggests that if the

lay [le] lace [les] lame [lẽm] *[lẽ] *[lẽs] *[lem]

baa [bæ] bad [bæd] bang [bæ̃ŋ] *[bæ̃ ] *[bæ̃d] *[bæŋ]

but [bʌt] [ʌ] bait [bet] [e] boat [bot] [o]

bet [bɛt] [ɛ] bought [bɔt] [ɔ] bat [bæt] [æ]

bout [baʊt] [aʊ] bite [baɪt] [aɪ] bot [bat] [a]

*book [bʊk] [ʊ] *boy [bɔɪ] [ɔɪ]

aspirated occurs before a

lay [le] lace [les] lame [lẽm] [lẽ] [lẽs] *[lem]

baa [bæ] bad [bæd] bang [bæ̃ŋ] [bæ̃ ] [bæ̃d] *[bæŋ]

book [bʊk] [ʊ] boy [bɔɪ] [ɔɪ]