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Human Anatomy
Chapter 24
• The reproductive system becomes active after puberty. During puberty the
reproductive organs mature to create a fertile individual capable of
reproducing. The primary sex organs produce the sex cells (egg/sperm)
and sex hormones. The accessory sex organs are all the components
involved in maintaining the sex cell and assisting in the process of
fertilization.
• I. The male reproductive system:
• This system is simpler than the female reproductive system.
• A. Scrotum: a sac located outside of the abdominal cavity, made up of a
thin layer of smooth and skeletal muscle and skin. It is divided into left and
right by a septum to form different compartments for the testicles. The
scrotum keeps the testicles outside the body so they can be 3 degrees
cooler than normal core temperature. The muscles of the scrotum contract
to bring the testicles closer to the body in cooler conditions. In warm
conditions they relax to allow the skin to stretch and maximize cooling.
• B. Testes: Oval shape organs made up of thousands of seminiferous tubules where
the sperm is produced. It responds to follicle stimulating hormone that signals sperm
production. When the sperm is in its last stages of maturation it moves to the
epididymus.
• 1. Gross anatomy: about 1 x 4 inches, complete surrounded by a fibrous capsule and
partially enclosed by a serous membrane that develop when the testes traveled
outside the body into the scrotum. The fibrous capsule divides the testicles into
wedge-like compartments called lobules that are filled with seminiferous tubules.
They are innervated by an abundant about of visceral sensory nerves that make
them very sensitive to pain. The high sensitivity serves for protection and in sexual
arousal.
• 2. Seminiferous
tubules and
spermatogenesis:
The seminiferous
tubules consist of a
thick stratified
epithelium
surrounding a
lumen. The
epithelium has
spermatogenic cells
that mature into
sperm. At puberty
the seminiferous
tubules begin to
produce about 400
million sperm. the
spermatogenic cells
are protect by a
blood-testis barrier
that keep the cells
from activating the
immune system.
• Spermatogenesis: these are the stages involved in sperm formation.
• Stage 1: formation of spermatocytes: spermatogonia divide by
mitosis to produce two daughter cells, one remains in the germ line
(to continue regeneration of more spermatogonia) and the other one
goes on to become sperm.
• 1. Supports of the uterus: The uterus, cervix, and vagina are supported by
ligaments and mesenteries. Most uterine support is provided by muscles of
the pelvic floor. Sometimes these muscles are torn during child birth and the
unsupported uterus results in a prolapsed uterus. In this condition the tip of
the cervix protrudes through the opening of the external vagina.
• Menstrual phase: (days 1-5) during this phase the endometrium is shed
• Proliferative phase: (days 6-14) during this phase the endometrium builds a
new stratum functionalis as it responds to rising estrogen levels. As the
layer thickens glands release a clear sticky mucus secretion that assist the
sperm in finding the egg.
• Secretory phase: (days 15-28) during this point the stratum functionalis is
highly vascularized and there is secretion of glycoproteins to support a
developing embryo in case fertilization occur. These changes are a
response to progesterone released by the corpus luteum in the ovary. If
there is no fertilization the progesterone levels drop signaling changes that
cause death of the stratum functionalis. The arteries constrict cutting out
blood supply and suddenly open again but the weak capillaries fragment
and the menstrual phase begins again.
D. The vagina: also
known as the birth canal.
It is the opening that
leads into the cervix and
is located anterior to the
anus but posterior to the
clitoris and urethral
opening. The vagina is
also the site where
sperm is deposited. This
canal is very flexible and
it composed of three
layers: adventitia,
muscularis, and mucosa.
It also has ruggae to
stimulate the penis
during intercourse and
stretch out during
childbirth. The mucosa is
made up of stratified
squamous epithelium. It
secretes glycogen to
maintain healthy
beneficial bacteria that
produce lactic acid. This
creates an acidic
environment that is not
beneficial to other
bacteria or sperm.
• E. External genitalia: also called the vulva and often incorrectly
referred to as the vagina. It includes the mons pubis (fatty rounded
pad over the pubic symphisis), the labia majora (thick skin fold
analogous to the scrotum), the clitoris (erectile tissue analogous to
the penis), and vestibule associated structures( the vaginal and
urethral orifice and vestibule glands). The vestibule are protected by
the mucus membrane sheathes called the labia minora.
• F. Mammary glands: modified sweat glands that are active in pregnant
females to produce milk for the infant. These first appear as rudimentary
structures in both men and women. When females reach puberty the ducts
grow but the glands do no fully develop; the mas of the breast is mostly
adipose. During pregnancy glandular alveoli form and produce milk shortly
after childbirth. The breast include the nipple and the areola (ring around
nipple). The glands consist of lobes that drain into the nipple by lactiferous
ducts and lactiferous sinuses where milk accumulates during breastfeeling.
Lymoph vessels drain into the parasternal and axillary lymphonodes.
• III. Pregnancy and childbirth: This section briefly describes the evens that
occur in the woman’s body during fertilization, pregnancy, and childbirth.
• A. Pregnancy: occurs once an egg is successfully fertilized and
successfully implants.
• 1. Events leading to
fertilization: Sperm swims
from the vagina through the
cervix, through the uterine
wall until it reaches the
oocyte in the uterine tubes.
When burrows into the zona
pellucida of the oocyte
enzymes digest it way to
allow the sperm to reach the
egg. The plasma membranes
fuse and sperm nucleus
enters the oocyte’s
cytoplasm. This initiates the
cortical reaction in which the
egg destroys other sperm
receptors so no other sperm
binds and fertilizes the egg.
When the male and female
chromosomes come together
fertilization has been
completed and the zygote
will begin to divide. Once it is
large enough and has
formed a blastocyst it enters
the uterus to implant.
•2. Implantation: Six days after fertilization the
blastocyst implants as it burrows into the
endometrium. At this point some cells will become
the developing embryo and some the placenta. As
the trophoblast burrow into the endometrium it
causes bleeding (about 10-12 days after
fertilization).
• 3. Formation of the placenta: The embryonic tissues from finger like
projection called chorionic villi that come in contact with the area of the
bleeding endometrium (lacunae) and the embryo connect to the chorionic
villi via the body stalk which will become the future umbilical cord. By the
end of the first month the embryo’s blood is in close contact with the
mother’s blood and exchange of nutrients and waste is happening at the
chorionic villi. At the start of the 4th month the endometrium and the
chorionic villi make a thick disc called the placenta. This is the site where
nutrient and waste exchange occur. After childbirth the placenta detaches
from the uterus.
• 4. The placenta: produces hormones such as progesterone and human
chorionic gandotropin HCG that keep the placenta attached. It prevents
bacteria from the mother to transfer to the child, allows nutrients and
antibodies to flow from mother to child, and the transfer of waste from child
to mother. Viruses and drugs do cross the placenta. As soon as one week
after fertilization HCG can be detected in blood test and two to three weeks
in urine.
• B. Childbirth: also known
as parturition, labor is the
events prior to childbirth.
When the fetus grows so
much that the placenta
cannot meet its nutritional
needs stress hormones are
release to signal the
beginning of labor.
Oxytocin and
prostaglandins cause the
uterus to contract. Stages
of labor:
• Dilation stage: begins when
the uterus first contracts
and ends when cervix
dilates (10cms). Cervical
dilation can take 6-12
hours.
• Expulsion stage: from the time the
cervix is fully dilated until the child
leaves the mother’s womb. There
are strong placental contractions,
this process can take up to 2 hours.
• HIV- 7,000 women give birth per year. 20% of infected babies develop AIDS
and die by age 4