EARTH MATERIALS

AND RESOURCES
Content Learning Competencies
Standard
Minerals and 1. Identify common rock
rocks forming minerals using their
physical and chemical
properties
2. Classify rocks into igneous,
sedimentary and
metamorphic
3. Identify the minerals
important to society
Content Learning Competencies
Standard
Mineral 1. Describe how ore minerals
resources are found, mined and
processed for human use
2. Cite ways to prevent or
lessen the environmental
impact that result from the
exploitation, extraction and
use of mineral resources
Rocks & Minerals
 ELEMENTS
• EIGHT ELEMENTS MAKE UP MOST OF
ALL MINERALS ON THE EARTH
– Elements combine to form Minerals
• LISTED IN ORDER OF ABUNDANCE
– OXYGEN (O)
– SILICON (Si)
– ALUMINIUM (Al)
– IRON (Fe)
– CALCIUM (Ca)
– POTASSIUM (K)
– SODIUM (Na)
– MAGNESIUM (Mg)
 MINERALS
• BUILDING BLOCKS FOR ROCKS

• DEFINITION:
– naturally occurring, inorganic solids,
consisting of specific chemical elements, and
a definite atomic array

• CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE – ‘CRYSTAL’

 MINERALS
• MINERALS: TWO CATEGORIES

1.SILICATES – CONTAIN SILICON & OXYGEN

MOLECULES (SiO)

2. NON-SILICATES (NO SiO)

NON-SILICATE MINERALS
• Make up 5% of Earth’s crust
• Those that do not contain Silicon
• Native metals: gold, silver, copper
• Carbonates: calcite (used in cement)
• Oxides: hematite (iron ores)
• Sulfides: galena (lead ores)
• Sulfates: gypsum (used in plaster)
SILICATE MINERALS
• Make up 90-95% of the Earth’s
Crust
• Contain Silicon and Oxygen
• Dominant component of most rocks,
include:
– QUARTZ (SiO2)
– FELDSPARS
– MICAS
 Classification of Silicate
Minerals
1.Mafic Silicates – generally
contain Iron(Fe) or Magnesium
(Mg) and are dark in color.
• Examples: Olivine, pyroxene,
amphibole and
biotite mica
2. Felsic Silicates
• Contain potassium (K) or Sodium
(Na) and Aluminum (Al) and are
light in color
• Examples: Feldspar, quartz, clay
minerals and muscovite
(white mica)
 COMMON MINERALS IN
•
THE EARTH
QUARTZ (Silica) SiO2 • OLIVINE (Mg,Fe)2SiO4
• CORUNDUM (Alumina) Al2O3 • PYROXENE (Mg,Fe)SiO3
• HEMATITE Fe2O3
• AMPHIBOLE
• CALCITE CaCO3 (Ca2Mg5)Si8O22(OH)2
• DOLOMITE CaMg(CO3)2
• FELDSPARS
• GYPSUM CaSO4 Albite NaAlSi3O8
• FLUORITE CaF2 Orthoclase KAlSi3O8
• PYRITE FeS2 Anorthite CaAl2Si2O8

• KAOLINITE Al2Si2O5(OH)4
Identification Key for the Rock-Forming Minerals
Mineral Usual Color Crystals Cleavages Hardness Diagnostic
Biotite Black Rare 1 perfect 2–3 Cleavage
Calcite White Common 3 good 3 Acid fizz
Dolomite White Common 3 good 4 Acid no fizz
Feldspar White or pink Common 2 good 6–6.5 Hardness
Hornblende Black Common 2 (60/120°) 5–6 Cleavage
Muscovite White Rare 1 perfect 2–3 Cleavage
Olivine Green Common 1 fair 6.5–7 Color
Pyroxene Dark Rare 2 (87/93°) 5–6.5 Cleavage
Quartz White Common None 7 Fracture
Physical properties of minerals

•Crystal structure and habit: A

mineral may show good crystal
habit or form, or it may be massive,
granular or compact with only
microscopically visible crystals.
•Hardness: the physical hardness of
a mineral is usually measured
according to the Mohs scale. This
scale is relative and goes from 1 to
10. Minerals with a given Mohs
hardness can scratch the surface of
any mineral that has a lower
hardness than itself.
Mohs’ Scale of Hardness
• 1 • Talc
• 2 • Gypsum
• 2.5 • Fingernail
• 3 • Calcite
• 4 • Flourite
• 5 • Apatite
Mohs’ Scale of Hardness
• 5.5 Steel Knife blade/glass plate
• 6 Orthoclase feldspar
Quartz
• 7
Topaz
• 8 Corundum ( Ruby)
• 9 Diamond
• 10
•Lustre indicates the way a
mineral's surface interacts with
light and can range from dull to
glassy (vitreous).
Metallic -high reflectivity like
metal: galena and pyrite
Sub-metallic -slightly less than
metallic reflectivity: magnetite
Non-metallic lusters:
oAdamantine - brilliant, the luster of
diamond also cerussite and anglesite
oVitreous -the luster of a broken glass:
quartz
oPearly - iridescent and pearl-like: talc and
apophyllite
oResinous - the luster of resin: sphalerite
and sulfur
oSilky - a soft light shown by fibrous
materials: gypsum and chrysotile
oDull/earthy -shown by finely crystallized
minerals: the kidney ore variety of hematite
Colour indicates the appearance of the
mineral in reflected light or transmitted
light for translucent minerals (i.e. what it
looks like to the naked eye).
Iridescence - the play of colors due
to surface or internal interference.
Labradorite exhibits internal
iridescence whereas hematite and
sphalerite often show the surface
effect.
•Streak refers to the colour of the
powder a mineral leaves after
rubbing it on an unglazed porcelain
streak plate. Note that this is not
always the same colour as the
original mineral.
•Cleavage describes the way a
mineral may split apart along various
planes. In thin sections, cleavage is
visible as thin parallel lines across a
mineral.
•Fracture describes how a mineral
breaks when broken contrary to its
natural cleavage planes.
Chonchoidal fracture is a smooth
curved fracture with concentric
ridges of the type shown by glass.
Hackley is jagged fracture with
sharp edges.
Fibrous
Irregular
Specific gravity relates the mineral
mass to the mass of an equal volume
of water, namely the density of the
material. While most minerals,
including all the common rock-
forming minerals, have a specific
gravity of 2.5 - 3.5, a few are
noticeably more or less dense, e.g.
several sulfide minerals have high
specific gravity compared to the
common rock-forming minerals.
•Other properties: fluorescence
(response to ultraviolet light),
magnetism, radioactivity, tenacity
(response to mechanical induced
changes of shape or form),
piezoelectricity and reactivity to
dilute acids.
 Where to find minerals?
• Most minerals are derived or extracted
from nature through the process of mining.
• Minerals are present everywhere and
some examples of these can be found at
home.
• Diamond rings, aluminum foil, and talcum
powder are classified as mineraloids
 Other examples are as follows:
• Hematite- hinges, handles,mattress spring,
make-up color
• Chromite- chrome plating, dyes
• Copper – electrical wiring
• Quartz- clocks, mirrors
• Gold – jewelries, plating, coating
• Borax – abrasive, cleaner, antiseptic
• Feldspar – porcelain , ceramics
• Flourite – toothpaste
• Sphalerite - dyes
 ROCKS
• AGGREGATIONS OF 2 OR MORE
MINERALS
– Same or different minerals combine
together
• THREE CATEGORIES
– IGNEOUS
– SEDIMENTARY
– METAMORPHIC
 IGNEOUS ROCKS
• FORMED FROM COOLED,
SOLIDIFIED MOLTEN MATERIAL, AT
OR BELOW THE SURFACE
• PLUTONIC – INTRUSIVE: COOLED
BELOW SURFACE AT GREAT
DEPTHS
• VOLCANIC – EXTRUSIVE: COOLED
AT OR NEAR THE SURFACE
THROUGH VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
 IDENTIFICATION OF IGNEOUS
ROCKS
• IDENTIFICATION PROCESSES:
– TEXTURE:
• Size, shape and manner of growth of
individual crystals
– MINERAL COMPOSITION
• Based on SiO content
Intrusive igneous rocks
Cooled below surface at
great depths
Felsic and Intermediate Plutonic Rocks

Biotite
granite
Intrusive igneous rocks
from Barre
Vermont
Muscovite biotite granite from
Concord, New Hampshire
Biotite hornblende granite from
St. Cloud, Minnesota
Quartz monzonite porphyry from
Garfield, Colorado
Tonalite (quartz diorite) from San
Diego County
Hornblende gabbro from San Diego
County
Anorthosite from Elizabethtown, New York
Extrusive igneous rocks
Cooled at or near the
surface through volcanic
eruptions
Andesite is a fine-grained, extrusive
igneous rock composed mainly of
plagioclase with other minerals such as
hornblende, pyroxene and biotite.
Basalt is a fine-grained, dark-colored
extrusive igneous rock composed mainly
of plagioclase and pyroxene.
Diorite is a coarse-grained, intrusive
igneous rock that contains a mixture of
feldspar, pyroxene, hornblende and
sometimes quartz.
Gabbro is a coarse-grained, dark colored,
intrusive igneous rock that contains
feldspar, pyroxene and sometimes olivine.
Granite is a coarse-grained, light colored,
intrusive igneous rock that contains mainly
quartz, feldspar, and mica minerals.
Obsidian is a dark-colored volcanic glass
that forms from the very rapid cooling of
molten rock material. It cools so rapidly that
crystals do not form
Pegmatite is a light-colored, extremely
coarse-grained intrusive igneous rock. It
forms near the margins of a magma
chamber during the final phases of magma
chamber crystallization.
Peridotite is a coarse-grained intrusive
igneous rock that is composed almost entirely
of olivine. It may contain small amounts of
amphibole, feldspar, quartz or pyroxene.
Pumice is a light-colored vesicular igneous
rock. It forms through very rapid solidification
of a melt. The vesicular texture is a result of
gas trapped in the melt at the time of
solidification.
Rhyolite is a light-colored, fine-grained,
extrusive igneous rock that typically
contains quartz and feldspar minerals.
Fire Opal is sometimes found filling cavities in
rhyolite. Long after the rhyolite has cooled,
silica-rich ground water moves through the
rock, sometimes depositing gems like opal, red
beryl, topaz, jasper or agate in the cavities of
the rock.
Scoria is a dark-colored, vesicular, extrusive
igneous rock. The vesicles are a result of trapped
gas within the melt at the time of solidification. It
often forms as a frothy crust on the top of a lava
flow or as material ejected from a volcanic vent
and solidifying while airborne.
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• Weathering processes break rock
into pieces, sediment, ready for
transportation deposition burial
lithification into new rocks.
CLASSIFYING SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
THREE SOURCES
• Detrital (or clastic) sediment is composed
of transported solid fragments (or detritus)
of pre-existing igneous, sedimentary or
metamorphic rocks
• Chemical sediment forms from previously
dissolved minerals that either precipitated
from solution in water , or were extracted
from water by living organisms
• Organic sedimentary rock consisting mainly
of plant remains
SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS
• Lakes
• Lagoons
• Rivers
• Ocean bottoms

• Estuaries
• Salt Flats
• Playas
• Glacial environments
 SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES
• LITHIFICATION:
• As sediment is buried several kilometers beneath
the surface, heated from below, pressure from
overlying layers and chemically-active water
converts the loose sediment into solid
sedimentary rock
• Compaction - volume of a sediment is reduced
by application of pressure
• Cementation - sediment grains are bound to each
other by materials originally dissolved during
chemical weathering of preexisting rocks
– typical chemicals include silica and calcium
carbonate.
Clastic sedimentary rocks
such as breccia, conglomerate,
sandstone, siltstone, and shale
are formed from mechanical
weathering debris.
Breccia is a clastic sedimentary rock that is
composed of large (over two millimeter diameter)
angular fragments. The spaces between the large
fragments can be filled with a matrix of smaller
particles or a mineral cement which binds the rock
together.
Conglomerate is a clastic sedimentary rock that
contains large rounded particles. The space
between the pebbles is generally filled with smaller
particles and/or a chemical cement that binds the
rock together.
Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock made
up mainly of sand-size (1/16 to 2 millimeter
diameter) weathering debris. Environments
where large amounts of sand can accumulate
include beaches, deserts, flood plains and deltas.
Shale is a clastic sedimentary rock that is
made up of clay-size (less then 1/256
millimeter in diameter) weathering debris. It
typically breaks into thin flat pieces.
Siltstone is a clastic sedimentary rock that
forms from silt-size (between 1/256 and
1/16 millimeter diameter) weathering debris.
Chemical sedimentary
rocks, such as rock salt, iron
ore, chert, flint, some
dolomites, and some
limestones, form when
dissolved materials precipitate
from solution.
Chert is a microcrystalline or
cryptocrystalline sedimentary rock material
composed of silicon dioxide (SiO2).
Flint is a hard, tough, chemical or biochemical
sedimentary rock that breaks with a conchoidal
fracture. It is a form of microcrystalline quartz that is
typically called “chert” by geologists. It often forms
as nodules in sedimentary rocks such as chalk and
marine limestones.
Dolomite (also known as "dolostone" and
"dolomite rock") is a chemical sedimentary
rock that is very similar to limestone. It is
thought to form when limestone or lime mud is
modified by magnesium-rich ground water.
 Limestone is a rock
that is composed
primarily of calcium
carbonate. It can form
organically from the
accumulation of shell,
coral, algal and fecal
debris.
It can also form chemically from the precipitation of
calcium carbonate from lake or ocean water.
Limestone is used in many ways. Some of the most
common are: production of cement, crushed stone
and acid neutralization.
Iron Ore is a chemical sedimentary rock that forms
when iron and oxygen (and sometimes other
substances) combine in solution and deposit as a
sediment. Hematite is the most common sedimentary
iron ore mineral.
Rock Salt is a chemical sedimentary rock that forms
from the evaporation of ocean or saline lake waters. It
is also known by the mineral name "halite". It is rarely
found at Earth's surface, except in areas of very arid
climate. It is often mined for use in the chemical
industry or for use as a winter highway treatment. Some
halite is processed for use as a seasoning for food.
Organic sedimentary rocks such
as coal, some dolomites, and some
limestones, form from the
accumulation of plant or animal
debris.
Coal is an organic sedimentary rock that
forms mainly from plant debris. The plant
debris usually accumulates in a swamp
environment. Coal is combustible and is
often mined for use as a fuel.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
• METAMORPHISM : process by
which conditions within the Earth
alter the mineral content and
structure of any rock, igneous,
sedimentary or metamorphic, without
melting it.
• Metamorphism occurs when heat and
pressure exceed certain levels,
destabilizing the minerals in
rocks...but not enough to cause
melting
There are two basic types of
metamorphic rocks. Foliated
metamorphic rocks such as
gneiss, phyllite, schist, and slate
have a layered or banded
appearance that is produced by
exposure to heat and directed
pressure.
Gneiss is foliated metamorphic rock that has a
banded appearance and is made up of granular
mineral grains. It typically contains abundant quartz
or feldspar minerals.
Phyllite is a foliated metamorphic rock that is
made up mainly of very fine-grained mica. The
surface of phyllite is typically lustrous and
sometimes wrinkled. It is intermediate in grade
between slate and schist.
Slate is a foliated metamorphic rock that is
formed through the metamorphism of shale. It
is a low grade metamorphic rock that splits
into thin pieces.
 Schist is
metamorphic rock
with well developed
foliation. It often
contains significant
amounts of mica
which allow the
rock to split into
thin pieces.

It is a rock of intermediate metamorphic grade

between phyllite and gneiss. The specimen shown
above is a "chlorite schist" because it contains a
significant amount of chlorite.
Non-foliated metamorphic
rocks such as hornfels, marble,
quartzite, and novaculite do not
have a layered or banded
appearance.
Hornfels is a fine-grained nonfoliated metamorphic
rock with no specific composition. It is produced by
contact metamorphism. Hornfels is a rock that was
"baked" while near a heat source such as a magma
chamber, sill or dike.
Marble is a non-foliated metamorphic rock that is
produced from the metamorphism of limestone or
dolostone. It is composed primarily of calcium
carbonate.
Novaculite is a dense, hard, fine-grained, siliceous
rock that breaks with a conchoidal fracture. It forms
from sediments deposited in marine environments
where organisms such as diatoms (single-celled
algae that secrete a hard shell composed of silicon
dioxide) are abundant in the water.
Lapis Lazuli, the famous blue gem material, is
actually a metamorphic rock. Most people are
surprised to learn that, so we added it to this photo
collection as a surprise. Blue rocks are rare and we
bet that it captured your eye. The round objects in
the photo are lapis lazuli beads about 9/16 inch
Quartzite is a non-foliated metamorphic rock that
is produced by the metamorphism of sandstone. It
is composed primarily of quartz.
 Mineral Resources In the
Philippines
• The Philippines has large reserves of
various kinds of minerals. In fact it is the
5th richest country in the world in terms of
mineral resources.
• The Mines and Geosciences Bureau
estimated that the country has around
USD840 billion worth of untapped mineral
wealth from metallic and nonmetallic
minerals.
 Metallic minerals in the Phils.
• Gold, copper, nickel, chromite, silver and
Iron in Benguet, Masbate, Camarines
Norte, Compostella Valley, Agusan Del
Sur and Surigao Del Norte and Samar .
• Large deposits of Nickel found in Palawan,
Zambales and Surigao del Norte and Del
Sur as well as Dinagat Island.
• Iron deposits in Leyte, Bulacan,
Camarines Sur and Zamboanga.
Nonmetallic minerals
 Soapstone is a
metamorphic rock
that consists
primarily of talc with
varying amounts of
other minerals such
as micas, chlorite,
amphiboles,
pyroxenes and
carbonates.
It is a soft, dense, heat-resistant rock that has a
high specific heat capacity. These properties make
it useful for a wide variety of architectural, practical
and artistic uses.
Content Learning Competencies
Standard
Energy 1. Describe how fossil fuels are
resources formed
2. Explain how heat from inside the
earth is tapped as a source of
energy (geothermal) for human use
3. Explain how energy (hydroelectric)
is harnessed from flowing water
4. Cite ways to address the different
environmental concerns related to
the use of fossil fuels, geothermal
and hydroelectric energy
Content Learning Competencies
Standard
Water 1. Recognize how water is
resources distributed on earth
2. Identify the various water
resources on earth
3. Explain how different activities
affect the quality and availability
of water for human use
4. Suggest ways of conserving and
protecting water resources
Content Learning Competencies
Standard
Soil 1. Identify human activities such as
resources farming, construction of
structures and waste disposal
that affect the quality and
quantity of soil
2. Give ways of conserving and
protecting the soil for future
generations
Content Learning Competencies
Standard
Human 1. Describe how people generate
activity and different types of wastes (solid,
the liquid and gaseous) as they make
environment use of various materials and
resources in everyday life
2. Explain how different types of
waste affect people’s health and
the environment
3. Cite ways of reducing the
production of waste at home, in
school and around the community