EARTHQUAKES

What is seismology?

Seismology is science dealing with all aspects of

earthquakes:
 OBSERVATIONAL SEISMOLOGY
• Recording earthquakes (micro-seismology)
• Cataloguing earthquakes
• Observing earthquake effects (macro-seismology)

 ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY
• Estimation of seismic hazard and risk
• Aseismic building

 PHYSICAL SEISMOLOGY
• Study of the properties of the Earth’s interior
• Study of physical characteristics of seismic sources
 To see how earthquakes really occur, we first
need to learn about constitution of the Earth!

The Three Major Chemical Radial Divisions

 Crust
 Mantle
 Core
The Shallowest Layer
of the Earth: the Crust
 The crust is the most
heterogeneous layer in the
Earth
 The crust is on average 33 km
thick for continents and 10 km
thick beneath oceans; however
it varies from just a few km to
over 70 km globally.
 The boundary between the
crust and the mantle is mostly
chemical. The crust and
mantle have different
compositions.
 This boundary is
referred to as the
Mohorovičić
discontinuity
or “Moho”.
 It was discovered in 1910 by
the Croatian seismologist
Andrija Mohorovičić.
 Middle Earth: The Mantle
 Earth’s mantle exists from the
bottom of the crust to a depth of
2891 km (radius of 3480 km) –
Gutenberg discontinuity
 It is further subdivided into:
• The uppermost mantle
(crust to 400 km depth)
• The transition zone Beno
(400 – 700 km depth) Gutenberg
• The mid-mantle
(700 to ~2650 km depth)
• The lowermost mantle
(~2650 – 2891 km depth)
 The uppermost mantle is
composed dominantly of olivine;
lesser components include
pyroxene, enstatite, and garnet
 Earth’s Core
 Owing to the great pressure
inside the Earth the Earth’s
core is actually freezing as the
Earth gradually cools.
 The boundary between the
liquid outer core and the solid
inner core occurs at a radius of
about 1220 km – Lehman
discontinuity, after Inge
Lehman from Denmark.
 The boundary between the
mantle and outer core is sharp.
 The change in density across
the core-mantle boundary is
greater than that at the Earth’s
surface!
 The viscosity of the outer core
is similar to that of water, it
flows kilometers per year and
creates the Earth’s magnetic
field.
 The outer core is the most
homogeneous part of the Earth
 The outer core is mostly an
alloy of iron and nickel in liquid
form.
 As the core freezes latent heat
is released; this heat causes
the outer core to convect and
so generates a magnetic field.
Mechanical
Layers:

1. Lithosphere
2. Asthenosphere
3. Mesosphere
 Lithosphere
 The lithosphere is the
uppermost 50-100 km
of the Earth.

 There is not a strict boundary between the lithosphere

and the asthenosphere as there is between the crust and
mantle.

 It consists of both crust and upper parts of mantle.

 It behaves rigidly, like a solid, over very long time

periods.
 Earthquake
 Results of motions of Lithospheric plates:
 collapse of buildings caused by ground

shaking
 Earthquake
 Results of motions of Lithospheric plates:
 explosions of fires from broken electrical

wires or gas mains

 Earthquake
 Results of motions of lithospheric plates:
 food shortages because of destruction of

roads and rail

 Astenosphere

 The asthenosphere exists between depths of 100-

200 km.
 It is the weakest part of the mantle.
 It is a solid over short time scales, but behaves like a
fluid over millions of years.
 The asthenosphere decouples the lithosphere
(tectonic plates) from the rest of the mantle.
 Tectonic forces
 The interior of the Earth is dynamic – it
cools down and thus provides energy for
convective currents in the outer core and
in the astenosphere.

 Additional energy comes from radioactive

decay...
 Convection

Convection in the
astenosphere
enables tectonic
processes –
PLATE
TECTONICS
 Plate tectonics

PLATE TECTONICS theory is very young

(1960-ies)
It provides answers to the most fundamental
questions in seismology:
 Why earthquakes occur?
 Why are earthquake epicenters not
uniformly distributed around the globe?
 At what depths are their foci?
MAJOR TECTONIC PLATES EARTHQUAKE EPICENTRES

OCEAN-BOTTOM AGE VOLCANOES

Major tectonic plates
 Tectonic
plates
 Tectonic plates
are large parts of
litosphere
‘floating’ on the
astenosphere
 Convective currents move them around with velocities of
several cm/year.
 The plates interact with one another in three basic ways:
1. They collide
2. They move away from each other
3. They slide one past another
 Interacting plates

 Collision leads to
SUBDUCTION of one
plate under another.
Mountain ranges may
also be formed
(Himalayas, Alps...).
 It produces strong and
sometimes very deep
earthquakes (up to
700 km).
 Volcanoes also occur EXAMPLES: Nazca – South America
there. Eurasia – Pacific
 Interacting plates

 Plates moving
away from each
other produce
RIDGES between
them (spreading
centres).
 The earthquakes
are generally
weaker than in the
case of EXAMPLES: Mid-Atlantic ridge (African
– South American plates, Euroasian –
subduction. North American plates)
 Interacting
plates
 Plates moving past each
other do so along the
TRANSFORM FAULTS.
 The earthquakes may be
very strong.

EXAMPLES: San Andreas Fault

(Pacific – North American plate)
 Earthquake Distributions
Oceanic Ridge
System

Circum-Pacific
Belt

Earthquakes occur in narrow zones marking the boundaries of

the main plates.
 How earthquakes occur?

• Earthquakes occur at FAULTS.

• Fault is a weak zone separating two
geological blocks.
• Tectonic forces
cause the blocks
to move relative
one to another.
 What Causes an Earthquake?

 Earthquakes are caused

by the movement of
Tectonic plates.

 The break between

Tectonic plates is called a
fault

The San Andreas Fault in

California
 What is the
Theory of Plate Tectonics?

 Earth's crust is made up of

plates that ride on top of the
asthenosphere
 The plates move due to
convection currents in the
mantle
 What evidence supports
this theory?
distributionof earthquakes
and volcanoes
sea-floor spreading
 Plate Movements
 Tectonic Plates move in different ways.

EXTENSIONAL – Plates
EXTEND AWAY from each other.

COMPRESSIONAL – Plates are

compressed, or PUSHED
towards each other.
..
 Plate Movements
TRANSFORM – Plates SHIFT against each other in opposite directions
Divergent Motion: Movin' Apart
 This is the most
common kind of
motion along the mid-
ocean ridges. This is
a system of undersea
mountain ranges that
extends beneath the
world's oceans and
connects together like
the seams on a
baseball.
 Convergent Motion: Comin'
Together
 This is the most
common kind of
motion at subduction
zones. This motion
happens where dense
oceanic plates colide
and slide beneath
continental plates.
Transformational Motion:
How earthquakes occur?
Elastic rebound theory
 How earthquakes occur?
Elastic rebound theory

• Because of friction, the blocks do not slide, but are deformed.

• When the stresses within rocks exceed friction, rupture occurs.
• Elastic energy, stored in the system, is released after rupture
in waves that radiate outward from the fault.
 What is the Elastic Rebound Theory?

 Explains how energy is

stored in rocks
 Rocks bend until the
strength of the rock
is exceeded
 Rupture occurs and
the rocks quickly
rebound to an
undeformed shape
 Energy is released in
waves that radiate
outward from the
fault
 Elastic Rebound Theory
- stresses cause plates to
deform

- change shape until the

stress overcomes the
breaking strength of the
crust and finally it breaks -
movement is results in the
rapid release of energy that
we call an earthquake

- plates snap back to their

original shape, but in new
locations relative to each
other
 Focus
- point inside the earth, on a fault plane
at which the first movement occurs

FAULT
 Epicenter
- point on the earth’s surface directly
above the focus – point where
earthquake appears to start

FAULT
The Focus and Epicenter of an Earthquake

 The point within Earth

where faulting begins is
the focus, or
hypocenter
 The point directly above
the focus on the surface
is the epicenter
 APPEARS TO START
HERE ON THE
SURFACE

EARTHQUAKE STARTS
HERE
 What are Seismic Waves?

 Response of material to the

arrival of energy fronts
released by rupture
 Two types:
 Body waves
• P and S
 Surface waves
• R and L
 Seismic Waves
 _______ (P) Wave –
Primary
fastest, able to travel
through liquids, energy
travels in the same
direction wave is traveling
Secondary
________ (S) Wave –
slower, not able to travel
through liquids, energy
travels at right angles to
direction wave is traveling
Surface (L) Wave –
 ________
travels along the surface,
responsible for most of
the quakes damage
Body Waves: P and S waves
 Body waves
 P or primary waves
• fastest waves
• travel through solids,
liquids, or gases
• compressional wave,
material movement is
in the same direction
as wave movement
 S or secondary waves
• slower than P waves
• travel through solids
only
• shear waves - move
material
perpendicular to
wave movement
 Surface Waves: R and L waves

 Surface Waves
 Travel just below or along the ground’s surface
 Slower than body waves; rolling and side-to-side
movement
 Especially damaging to buildings
The Poor House 
Schematic diagram illustrating students performing
wave simulations.
Seismographs record
earthquake events

At convergent boundaries,
focal depth increases
along a dipping seismic
zone called a Benioff
zone
Earthquake Detection
Seismographs are
instruments that
record earthquake
waves.
Essentially, a weight is
suspended from a
support that is
attached to bedrock.
When the bedrock
vibrates, a pen records
the earthquake on a
rotating drum.
Seismic Records

Records of the
ground motion are
called seismograms.
These are the sheets
of paper removed
from the rotating
drum of the
seismograph.
Seismogram
Where Do Earthquakes Occur and How Often?
~80% of all earthquakes occur in the circum-Pacific belt
 most of these result from convergent margin activity
 ~15% occur in the Mediterranean-Asiatic belt
 remaining 5% occur in the interiors of plates and on
spreading ridge centers
 more than 150,000 quakes strong enough to be felt are
recorded each year
The Economics and Societal Impacts of EQs

Damage in Oakland, CA, 1989

• Building collapse
• Fire
• Tsunami
• Ground failure
How is an Earthquake’s Epicenter Located?
Seismic wave behavior
 P waves arrive first, then S waves, then L and R
 Average speeds for all these waves is known
 After an earthquake, the difference in arrival times at a
seismograph station can be used to calculate the distance
from the seismograph to the epicenter.
How is an Earthquake’s Epicenter Located?

Time-distance graph
showing the average
travel times for P- and S-
waves. The farther away a
seismograph is from the
focus of an earthquake,
the longer the interval
between the arrivals of
the P- and S- waves
 How is an Earthquake’s
Epicenter Located?
 Three seismograph stations
are needed to locate the
epicenter of an earthquake
 A circle where the radius
equals the distance to the
epicenter is drawn
 The intersection of the circles
locates the epicenter
 Locating Earthquakes

The difference in velocities

of P and S waves provides
a method for locating the
epicenter.
The greater the length of
the time between the first
arriving P and S waves,
the greater the distance the
earthquake is away.

In this example, an interval of 5 minutes indicates the

earthquake was 3400 km away from the recorder.
Locating Earthquakes

From the travel-time

graph we get the
distance to the
earthquake, but how
can we figure out the
direction??
The precise location
can be found if three
seismic stations
recorded the
earthquake.
To locate the
epicenter of an
earthquake, a
minimum of ____
three
seismograph
stations is
needed. The
location is where
all circles
intersect
_______.
How are the Size and Strength of an Earthquake Measured?

 Intensity
 subjective measure
of the kind of
damage done and
people’s reactions
to it
 isoseismal lines
identify areas of
equal intensity

 Modified Mercalli Intensity Map

 1994 Northridge, CA earthquake,
magnitude 6.7
 How are the Size and Strength of an Earthquake Measured?

 Magnitude
 Richter scale
measures total amount
of energy released by
an earthquake;
independent of
intensity
 Amplitude of the
largest wave produced
by an event is
corrected for distance
and assigned a value
on an open-ended
logarithmic scale
 Earthquake Strength Measures
I) Magnitude & II) Intensity

I) Magnitude:

 Definition: A measure of actual physical

energy release at its source as estimated from
instrumental observations.

 Scale: Richter Scale

 By Charles Richter, 1936
 Open-ended scale
 The oldest & most widely used Noji 1997
 Earthquake Strength Measures
I) Magnitude & II) Intensity

II) Intensity:
 Definition: a measure of the felt or perceived
effects of an earthquake rather than the strength
of the earthquake itself.

 Scale: Modified Mercalli (MM) scale

 12-point scale, ranges from barely

perceptible earthquakes at MM I to
near total destruction at MM XII
 Magnitude versus Intensity

 Magnitude refers to the force of the earthquake as

a whole, while intensity refers to the effects of an
earthquake at a particular site.

 An earthquake can have just one magnitude, while

intensity is usually strongest close to the epicenter
& is weaker the farther a site is from the epicenter.

 The intensity of an earthquake is more germane to

its public health consequences than its magnitude.
 Duration of the Earthquake

 Actual rupture duration: 3- 4 min.

 Definition: The time it took for

earthquake to take place on
fault & rupture entire length
 Can Earthquakes be Predicted?
Earthquake Precursors
 changes in elevation or tilting of land surface,
fluctuations in groundwater levels, magnetic field,
electrical resistance of the ground
 seismic dilatancy model
 seismic gaps
 Can Earthquakes be Predicted?
Earthquake Prediction Programs
 include laboratory and field studies of rocks before, during,
and after earthquakes
 monitor activity along major faults
 produce risk assessments