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Welcome to PLANT PHYSIOLOGY lecture
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1.1 Definition
What is Plant Physiology?
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INTRODUCTION
What is Plant Physiology about ?
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2. Jan van Helmont
began the research of the process in the mid-
1600s when he carefully measured the mass
of the soil used by a plant and the mass of the
plant as it grew.
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4. Stephen Hales, FRS (17 September
1677 – 4 January 1761), an English
physiologist, chemist and inventor
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5. Joseph PriestleyO2
a chemist and minister, discovered that when he isolated a
volume of air under an inverted jar, and burned a candle in it,
the candle would burn out very quickly, much before it ran out
of wax. He further discovered that a mouse could similarly
"injure" air. He then showed that the air that had been "injured"
by the candle and the mouse could be restored by a plant.
6. Jan Ingenhousz O2 produced by plants +light
a court physician to the Austrian Empress, repeated Priestley's
experiments in 1778, . He discovered that it was the influence of
sun and light on the plant that could cause it to rescue a mouse
in a matter of hours.
7. Jean Senebier CO2 taken up by plants
a French pastor, showed in 1796, that CO2 was the "fixed" or
"injured" air and that it was taken up by plants in
photosynthesis.
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8. Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure CO2 +H2O
soon afterwards, showed that the increase in mass of the
plant as it grows could not be due only to uptake of CO2,
but also to the incorporation of water. Thus the basic
reaction by which photosynthesis is used to produce food
(such as glucose) was outlined.
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1.3 How Plants Work
Plant Level 6. Christae 18. Golgi body
Shoot 7. Nucleus 19. Peroxisomes
Leaves 8. Nuclear membrane 20. Microfilaments
Stem 9. Nucleolus 21. Microtubules
Reproductive Organ
10. Centrosome 22. Plasmodesmata
Root
11. Ribosome 23. Rough
Cellular Level 12. Chloroplast endoplasmic
1. Cell wall 13. Chlorophyll reticulum
2. Cell membrane 14. Stroma 24. Smooth
3. Cytoplasm endoplasmic
15. Thylakoid disk reticulum
4. Vacuole 16. Granum
5. Mitochondrion 17. Amyloplast
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Plant Level
• The Shoot System
• Above ground (usually)
• Elevates the plant above the
soil
• Many functions including:
• photosynthesis
• reproduction & dispersal
• food and water conduction
• The Root System
• Underground (usually)
• Anchor the plant in the soil
• Absorb water and nutrients
• Conduct water and nutrients
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Cellular Level
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1. Cell wall - a thick, rigid membrane that surrounds a plant cell. This
layer of cellulose fiber gives the cell most of its support and structure.
The cell wall also bonds with other cell walls to form the structure of
the plant.
2. Cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the
cell, but is inside the cell wall. The cell membrane is semipermeable,
allowing some substances to pass into the cell and blocking others.
3. Cytoplasm - the jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the
organelles are located.
4. Vacuole - a large, membrane-bound space within a plant cell that is
filled with fluid. Most plant cells have a single vacuole that takes up
much of the cell. It helps maintain the shape of the cell.
5. Mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double
membrane. The inner membrane is infolded many times, forming a
series of projections (called cristae). The mitochondrion converts the
energy stored in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for the
cell.
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6. Christae - (singular crista) the multiply-folded inner membrane of a
cell's mitochondrion that are finger-like projections. The walls of the
cristae are the site of the cell's energy production (it is where ATP is
generated).
7. Nucleus - spherical body containing many organelles, including the
nucleolus. The nucleus controls many of the functions of the cell (by
controlling protein synthesis) and contains DNA (in chromosomes).
The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane
8. Nuclear membrane - the membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
9. Nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus - it is where ribosomal RNA
is produced.
10. Centrosome - (also called the "microtubule organizing center") a small
body located near the nucleus - it has a dense center and radiating
tubules. The centrosomes is where microtubules are made. During cell
division (mitosis), the centrosome divides and the two parts move to
opposite sides of the dividing cell. Unlike the centrosomes in animal
cells, plant cell centrosomes do not have centrioles.
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11. Ribosome - small organelles composed of RNA-rich cytoplasmic
granules , approximately 60 percent RNA and 40 percent protein , that
are sites of protein synthesis. In eukaryotes, ribosomes are made of
four strands of RNA. In prokaryotes, they consist of three strands of
RNA.
12. Chloroplast - an elongated or disc-shaped organelle containing
chlorophyll. Photosynthesis (in which energy from sunlight is
converted into chemical energy - food) takes place in the chloroplasts.
13. Chlorophyll - chlorophyll is a molecule that can use light energy from
sunlight to turn water and carbon dioxide gas into sugar and oxygen
(this process is called photosynthesis). Chlorophyll is magnesium
based and is usually green.
14. Stroma - part of the chloroplasts in plant cells, located within the inner
membrane of chloroplasts, between the grana.
15. Thylakoid disk - thylakoid disks are disk-shaped membrane structures
in chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll. Chloroplasts are made up of
stacks of thylakoid disks; a stack of thylakoid disks is called a granum.
Photosynthesis (the production of ATP molecules from sunlight) takes
place on thylakoid disks.
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16. Granum - (plural grana) A stack of thylakoid disks within the chloroplast is
called a granum.
17. Amyloplast - an organelle in some plant cells that stores starch.
Amyloplasts are found in starchy plants like tubers and fruits.
18. Golgi body - (also called the golgi apparatus or golgi complex) a flattened,
layered, sac-like organelle that looks like a stack of pancakes and is located
near the nucleus. The golgi body packages proteins and carbohydrates into
membrane-bound vesicles for "export" from the cell.
19. Peroxisomes - Microbodies are a diverse group of organelles that are found
in the cytoplasm, roughly spherical and bound by a single membrane.
There are several types of microbodies but peroxisomes are the most
common.
20. Microfilaments - Microfilaments are solid rods made of globular proteins
called actin. These filaments are primarily structural in function and are an
important component of the cytoskeleton.
21. Microtubules - These straight, hollow cylinders are found throughout the
cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells (prokaryotes don't have them) and carry
out a variety of functions, ranging from transport to structural support.
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22. Plasmodesmata - Plasmodesmata are small tubes that connect plant
cells to each other, providing living bridges between cells.
23. Rough endoplasmic reticulum - (rough ER) a vast system of
interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted sacks that are
located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer
nuclear membrane). Rough ER is covered with ribosomes that give it a
rough appearance. Rough ER transport materials through the cell and
produces proteins in sacks called cisternae (which are sent to the Golgi
body, or inserted into the cell membrane).
24. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - (smooth ER) a vast system of
interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted tubes that are
located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer
nuclear membrane). The space within the ER is called the ER lumen.
Smooth ER transport materials through the cell. It contains enzymes
and produces and digests lipids (fats) and membrane proteins; smooth
ER buds off from rough ER, moving the newly-made proteins and lipids
to the Golgi body and membranes
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1.4 SYLLABUS
LECTURE TOPICS CONTENTS
Introduction
1. ENERGY
Energy
2. PHOTOSYNTESIS I Light Reaction: Synthesis of NADPH
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References
1. Taiz, L. and Zeiger, E., 1991. Plant Physiology. The
Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Co., Inc., Redwood City,
California
2. Salisbury, F.B. and C.W. Ross. 1992. Plant Physiology
3. Salisbury, F.B. and Ross, C., 1969. Plant Physiology. Wadsworth
Publishing Co. Inc., Belmont, California
4. Bidwell,R.G.S. 1979. Plant Physiology. Mac. Millan. Publishing,
New York
5. Devlin, R.M. and F.H. Witham. 1983. Plant Physiology. The Towa
State University Press
6. Gardner,F.P.,R.B. Pearce and R.L. Mitchell.1985, Physiology of
crop plants
7. Hall.D.O. and K.K. Rao 1981. Photosynthesis, London
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2. ENERGY
What is the importance of studying Energy in plant
physiology?
• As plant physiology is about HOW PLANTS
WORK, then sufficient understanding of
energy is important in the study of plant
physiology.
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2.1 Definition
Energy is the ability to do work
• Living organisms need energy for growth and
movement.
• Energy is the basic requirement of plant to
function
• Energy sustains the work of biosynthesis of
cellular and extracellular components, the
transport of ions and organic chemicals etc.
• Sunlight is the ultimate source of energy for life.
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2.2 Energy Of Organisms
Berdasarkan sumber karbon utamanya,
organisme dibagi menjadi dua kelompok
(Staniewr et al, 1977).
Autotrophic: Organisme yang menggunakan karbon
anorganik (inorganic carbon) plants
Heterotrophic: Organisme yang menggunakan
karbon organik (organic carbon) animals
Pembagian organisme yang lain adalah
berdasarkan sumber energinya :
Phototrophic (or photosynthetic) : Organisme yang
menggunakan energi (radiasi) matahari
Chemotrophic : Organisme yang menggunakan
energi yang dilepaskan selama oksidasi kimia
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Combining these two basic criteria leads to
the recognition of four major nutritional
categories :
1. Photoautotrophs, organisme yang
memanfaatkan cahaya sebagai sumber energi
dan C02 sebagai sumber utama karbon
(misalnya tanaman tingkat tinggi, alga,
cyanobacteria dan bakteri belerang ungu dan
hijau).
2. Photoheterotrophs, organisme yang tergantung
pada cahaya sebagai sumber energi dan
mendapatkan banyak karbon mereka dari
senyawa organik. Kategori ini diwakili oleh
kelompok khusus bakteri fotosintetik yang
dikenal sebagai bakteri non-belerang ungu.
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3. Chemoautotrophs, organisme yang
mendapatkan energi dari oksidasi
senyawa anorganik dan menggunakan
C02 sebagai sumber karbon utama.
Kategori ini terdiri dari beberapa
kelompok bakteri khusus, termasuk
bakteri nitrifikasi dan thiobacilli.
4. Chemoheterotrophs, organisme yang
memanfaatkan senyawa organik sebagai
energi dan sumber karbon (misalnya
hewan, protozoa, jamur dan sebagian
besar bakteri).
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2.3 Law of Conservation of Energy
1. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed
2. Energy is always changing from one kind to another.
3. The total energy of an object never changes. The
amount of energy in the Universe is constant!!
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Form of Energy
1. Chemical Energy
Chemical Energy is required to bond atoms together,
and when bonds are broken, energy is released.
Burning
a wooden match (0.3 grams) releases about
1055 Joules >3,000 J/g, nearly 1 Cal/g
gasoline yields about
39 kJ per gram, or just over 9 Cal/g
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2. Mass Energy
In the special theory of relativity Einstein
demonstrated that mass and energy
could be traded one for the other.
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If one gram of material undergoes a chemical
reaction, losing about 9,000 J of energy, how much
mass does it lose?
9,000 J = mc2,
So
m = 9,000/c2 = 9103/91016 = 10-13 kg
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Atoms are not indivisible
Made up of protons, neutrons,
and electrons
The nucleus contains protons
and neutrons
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Terminology
• Atomic Number is how many protons an
atom has (Z) A
• Atomic Mass Number is how many
protons and neutrons an atom has (A) Z X
Elements are defined by atomic number
Different AMUs result in different isotopes
12C is “carbon 12”, 14C is “carbon 14” etc
Mass of particles
Electron = 0,00055 amu
Proton = 1,00728 amu
Neutron = 1,00866 amu
Positron = 0.00055 amu
Deutron = 2,01355 amu
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Niel Bohr pada tahun 1913 menyajikan
gambaran novel atom yang terdiri dari
elektron yang mengorbit inti
Elektron dapat mengorbit pada jarak
yang dekat dengan atau jauh dari inti.
H Proton (+)
Elektron (-)
C
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Centrifugal force =
electrical attraction
between the proton
and the electron
Fe = kZe2/r2
r Fe k = 9.109 N.m2/C2
e = muatan elektron
= 1.60219.10-19C
Fc
v
Centripetal force
Z = jlh proton dalam inti
Fc = mv2/r r = jari-2 orbit
v = kecepatan elektron
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Bohr kemudian mengasumsikan bahwa ada orbit
tertentu dimana elektron stabil
Elektron yang jauh dari inti dapat jatuh ke orbit yang
mendekati inti karena gaya centripetal diikuti dengan
kehilangan energi potensial (PE)
Mis. Energi total elektron pada orbit n =
En dan pada orbit p = Ep
Kehilangan energi dengan elektron jatuh
dari orbit n ke p ad.
En – Ep
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Energi elelektron pada orbit tertentu (n)
dapat diestimasi dengan persamaan
berikut
En = -(kZe2/2)(kZe242m/n2h2)
En = -22k2e4Z2m/n2h2 ……..(9)
= 22/7
k = 9.109 N.m2/C2
e = 1.60219.10-19 C
m = 9.1095.10-31 kg
h = 6.6262.10-34 Js
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Untuk atom yang mempunyai nomor
atom Z (proton + neutron) = 1,
persamaan diatas dapat disederhanakan
menjadi
En = -13,6/n2 eV ……………….(10)
1 J = 6,25.1018 eV
Illustration
Singly ionized helium atom which has lost
one of its two electrons. Draw the
energy-level diagram for this ion
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Reasoning
The singly ionized helium atom will be
much like hydrogen atom except that the
change on nucleus is +2e, and so Z = 2.
From equation, it is found
En = -54,4/n2 eV
Sehingga
E1 = -54.4 eV
E2 = -13,6 eV
E3 = -6,04 eV
E4 = -3,42 eV
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The Gibbs free energy is one of the most important
thermodynamic functions for the characterization of a
system
Gibbs free energy is defined in 1876 by Josiah Willard
Gibbs to predict whether a process will occur
spontaneously at constant temperature and pressure.
Gibbs free energy, also indicating how much work is
attainable for any given process, is defined as
G = H – TS
where
G is the Gibbs free energy, measured in joules
H is the enthalpy, measured in joules
T is the temperature, measured in kelvins
S is the entropy, measured in joules per kelvin
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Enthalpy (H) is a measure of the energy
associated with a system, and defined as:
H = U + pV
where
H is the enthalpy of the system (in joules),
U is the internal energy of the system (in
joules),
p is the pressure at the boundary of the system
and its environment, (in pascals), and
V is the volume of the system, (in m3).
Note that the U term is equivalent to the energy
required to create the system, and that the pV term
is equivalent to the energy which would be
required to "make room" for the system if the
pressure of the environment remained constant.
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Enthalpy is sometimes described as the
"heat content" of a system under a given
pressure. Such a visualization assumes no
energy exchange with the environment
other than heat or expansion work. Given
such restrictions, it can be shown that:
The enthalpy is the total amount of energy
which can the system can emit through heat,
Adding or removing energy through heat is the
only way to change the enthalpy, and
The amount of change in enthalpy is equal to
the amount of energy added through heat.
tightly bound molecules have higher heat energy.
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Entropy (S) is a measure of the disorder in
a system.
Molecules distributed randomly have high
entropy (large S) while ordered molecules have
low entropy (small S).
The quantity of G cannot be measured
experimentally, but the change of free
energy (G) or the maximum amount of Ice melting in a warm
room is a common
energy made available can be evaluated. example of "entropy
G = H − TS increasing",
described in 1862 by
A chemical reaction will have a H < 0 if the Rudolf Clausius as
heat energy of the reactants is greater than the an increase in the
products. disaggregation of
A reaction will have S < 0 if the reaction the molecules of the
body of
results in increased order and S > 0 if the
reaction results in increased entropy.
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When the concentrations of reactants and products are
variable for the following reaction
AB
we can determine G as
[B ]
G G 0' R T. ln
[ A]
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Go'
Process Chemical Reaction
(kcal/mol)
photosynthesis 6CO2 + 6H2O --> glucose + 6O2 +686
hydrolysis of Sucrose + H2O --> glucose + -7.0
sucrose fructose
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As an example, the chemical reaction of photosynthesis has
a standard free energy
Go' = +686 kcal/mol
The reverse reaction has
Go' = -686 kcal/mol
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Penentuan G
Jika suatu reaksi berlangsung, mis. zat A
berubah menjadi zat B seperti berikut
cC + dD + free energy aA + bB
G G 0
RT ln
B
A
G G 0
RT ln
C D
c d
Aa Bb
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Standard
Kimia fisik :
konsentrasi reaktan & produk = 1 M, dan G & G0
dinyatakan pada pH = 0
Biokimia :
konsentrasi reaktan & produk = 1 M kecuali [H+]
= 10-7 M, G’ & G0’ dinyatakan pada pH = 7
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Pada keadaan standar, [A] = [B] = [C] = 1 M dan [H+] = 10-7
M, sehingga
G0’ = G0 + RT ln[H+]x = G0 + x RT ln10-7
Jika x = 1, maka pada 2980 K
G0’ = G0 –39,95 kJ atau G0 = G0’ + 39,95 kJ
Jadi G0 G0’ sebesar 39,95 kJ/mol H+ yang dibebaskan untuk
rekasi yang melibatkan H+. Ini berarti reaksi akan lebih spontan
pada pH = 7
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Ilustrasi 1.
Jika glucose 1-phosphate (G1-P) dikonversi ke G 6-P oleh
enzim phosphoglucomutase pada 250C dengan [G 1-P)
turun dari 0,02 M menjadi 0,001 M bersamaan dengan
peningkatan [G 6-P) menjadi 0,019, hitunglah G0
Reasoning
Konsentrasi substrat, [G 1-P) = 0,02 dan
produk, [G 6-P) = 0,019, sehingga
Keq = 0,019/0,001 = 19
G0 = -RT ln Keq = -1363 logKeq
= -1363 log 19 = -1745 cal
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Ilustrasi 2.
Apabila G0’ dari hidrolisis ATP ke ADP+Pi = -7,3 kcal.mol-
1, hitunglah Keg reaksi tersebut
Reasoning
G0’ = -RT ln Keq’
-7,3 kcal.mol-1 = -(1,98.103 kcal.0K-1.mol-1)
(29800K)(2,303 log Keq’)
Log Keq’= 5,35 ; Keq = 2,2.105
Ilustrasi 3.
NAD+ dan NADH ad. btk oksidasi dan reduksi nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide. Harga G0 untuk oksidasi NADH = -21,83 KJ.mol-1
pada 2980K. Hitunglah G0, Keq’ dari reaksi tsb. Hitung juga G
dan G’ jika [NADH] = 1,5.10-2, [H+] = 3.10-5, [NAD+] = 4,6.10-3
dan pH2 = 0,01 atm. Do it by yourself if you like
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Tugas
1. How do plants work to live
2. What is the function of cell components
3. What is energy ?
4. Where do plants for the first time derive
energy from ?
5. What does it mean by potential energy ?
6. How much is the mass energy of 0,5 kg body ?
7. How much is the free energy of ATP
hydrolysis at pH = 7, 250C and steady state
when the concentration of ATP, ADP dan Pi is
10-5 M, 10-3 M dan 10-7 M (G0’ of ATP = 7700
cal.mol-1) respectively ?
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