Parts of the Cell wall

Cell Wall
A cell wall is a structural layer surrounding some types of cells, just
outside the cell membrane. It can be tough, flexible, and sometimes
rigid. It provides the cell with both structural support and protection,
and also acts as a filtering mechanism. Cell walls are present in most
prokaryotes, in algae, plants and fungi but rarely in other eukaryotes
including animals. A major function is to act as pressure vessels,
preventing over-expansion of the cell when water enters.
CELL WALL STRUCTURE
PARTS OF THE CELL WALL
Middle lamella: This outer cell wall layer contains polysaccharides
called pectins. Pectins aid in cell adhesion by helping the cell walls of
adjacent cells to bind to one another.
Primary cell wall: This layer is formed between the middle lamella
and plasma membrane in growing plant cells. It is primarily
composed of cellulose microfibrils contained within a gel-like matrix
of hemicellulose fibers and pectin polysaccharides. The primary cell
wall provides the strength and flexibility needed to allow for cell
growth.
Secondary cell wall: This rigid layer strengthens and supports the
cell. In addition to cellulose and hemicellulose, some secondary cell
walls contain lignin. Lignin strengthens the cell wall and aids in
water conductivity in plant vascular tissue cells.
Support: The cell wall provides mechanical strength and support. It also
controls the direction of cell growth.

Regulate growth: The cell wall sends signals for the cell to enter the cell
cycle in order to divide and grow.

Regulate diffusion: The cell wall is porous allowing some substances,

including proteins, to pass into the cell while keeping other substances out.

Protection: The cell wall provides a barrier to protect against plant

viruses and other pathogens. It also helps to prevent water loss.

Storage: The cell wall stores carbohydrates for use in plant growth,
especially in seeds.
Extracellular Matrix of
Animal Cells
Extracellular Matrix
The extracellular matrix is a complex system that allows cells to
communicate and connect with each other in order to perform various
specific functions.

Most animal cells release materials into the extracellular space,

creating a complex meshwork of proteins and carbohydrates called
the extracellular matrix (ECM). A major component of the
extracellular matrix is the protein collagen. Collagen proteins are
modified with carbohydrates, and once they're released from the cell,
they assemble into long fibers called collagen fibrils
In the extracellular matrix, collagen fibers are interwoven with a class of
carbohydrate-bearing proteoglycans, which may be attached to a long
polysaccharide backbone. The extracellular matrix also contains many other
types of proteins and carbohydrates.

The extracellular matrix is directly connected to the cells it surrounds. Some of

the key connectors are proteins called integrins, which are embedded in the
plasma membrane. Proteins in the extracellular matrix, like the fibronectin
molecules, it can act as bridges between integrins and other extracellular
matrix proteins such as collagen. On the inner side of the membrane, the
integrins are linked to the cytoskeleton. Integrins anchor the cell to the
extracellular matrix.
Components and Functions
 Proteoglycan Complex

provides hydration and swelling pressure to the tissue enabling it to

withstand compressional forces. This function is best illustrated by the most
abundant proteoglycan in cartilage tissues.

 Collagen

is a strong, stretch-resistant fiber that provides tensile strength to your

tissues. It's the most abundant protein in the human body. Collagen is the
principle constituent of your tendons and ligaments and provides support for
your skin.
Fibronectin

a glycoprotein of the extracellular matrix that binds to membrane-

spanning receptor proteins called integrins. Similar to
integrins, fibronectin binds extracellular matrix components such as
collagen.

Integrin

are transmembrane receptors that facilitate cell-extracellular

matrix (ECM) adhesion.
Function of ECM
The extracellular matrix (ECM) acts as an adhesive that holds all the
cells of a tissue in place. It also forms a few specialized structures such
as cartilage, tendons, and the basement membrane (also called the
basal lamina). It not only functions as a physical scaffolding, but also
provides a channel for the migration and communication of cells via
the use of signaling molecules. It consists of a variety of growth and
differentiating factors that regulate and influence development,
migration, proliferation, shape, and metabolic functions of the cells.
Cell-Cell Interaction
Cell to Cell interaction
Cell–cell interaction refers to the direct interactions
between cell surfaces that play a crucial role in the development and
function of multicellular organisms. These interactions allow cells to
communicate with each other in response to changes in their
microenvironment.
Endocytosis - bringing in the goods

• Endocytosis brings molecules into the cell. These molecules are

important for the survival of the cell, such as glucose. There are
three different styles of endocytosis: 1) phagocytosis, 2) pinocytosis,
and 3) receptor-mediated endocytosis.
Phagocytosis

Phagocytosis is the process where the cell engulfs a molecule in order

to move it to the interior of the cell. The process starts by the molecule
binding to specific receptors on the surface of the cell membrane,
triggering the cell membrane to reshape, surrounding the molecule.
The receptors allow this process to be specific, controlling what can
enter the cell. Then, the two ends of the cell fuse, creating a vesicle
that surrounds the molecule. Eventually the membrane around the
molecule will be digested and its contents will be used. For example,
white blood cells recognize pathogens, such as viruses or bacterial
cells, outside of the cell and will use phagocytosis to bring it in to
destroy it.
Pinocytosis

Pinocytosis engulfs dissolved ions and other solutes in the liquid

medium surrounding the cell. This is different than phagocytosis,
which brings full, undissolved or insoluble molecules into the cell. The
distortion of the cell membrane to engulf the dissolved solutes is
similar to that of phagocytosis. Another important distinction is that
pinocytosis is not specific to what is carried into the cell, whereas
phagocytosis can be highly specific. The liquid medium outside the cell
is always filled with dissolved particles and solutes that are handy for
the cell, so the cell doesn’t need this process to be specific.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Receptor-mediated endocytosis is very specific with respect to what is
imported into the cell. There are receptors embedded in the cell
membrane that, when bound by molecules with an exact match in
shape, size, or other physical attribute, will allow the molecule to enter
into the cell through the same engulfment process as phagocytosis or
pinocytosis.
Exocytosis - exiting the cell

• Exocytosis is a process used by the cell to take out its trash and to
incorporate proteins into the cell membrane. During exocytosis, the
phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane surrounds the waste
proteins, creating a bubble-like structure called a vesicle. Vesicles
are frequently used in the cell for transportation of molecules across
the cell membrane.
Waste proteins
A slightly different process occurs for waste products being ejected out
of the cell, instead of proteins being incorporated into the cell
membrane. Once the vesicle has enclosed the waste proteins on the
inside of the cell, it moves towards the cell membrane. The vesicle
merges with the cell membrane, opening the bubble-like structure and
ejecting the contents in the environment surrounding the cell.
 Proteins destined for the cell membrane

Exocytosis is also used to integrate new proteins into the cell membrane. In
this process, the new protein is formed inside the cell, and migrates to
phospholipid bilayer of the vesicle. The vesicle, containing the new protein as
a part of the phospholipid bilayer, fuses with the cell membrane. This allows
the protein to be directly integrated into the cell membrane when the vesicle,
in the same way as with waste proteins, fuses and opens with the cell
membrane.
Cell junctions

• There are many different ways that cells can connect to each other.
The three main ways for cells to connect with each other are: gap
junctions, tight junctions, and desmosomes. These types of junctions
have different purposes, and are found in different places.
Gap Junctions (communicating junction)
Gap junctions are essentially tubes that join two cells together. These
tubes create a connection that allows for the transport of water and
ions to and from the connecting cells. The tubes also help to spread
electrochemical signals that are produced by action potentials that
occur in the nervous system (neurons) and in cardiac cells that make
your heart beat.
Tight Junctions (occluding junctions)
Tight junctions are different from gap junctions because they are the
connections that form when cells are squished up against one another.
In this case, the cell membranes are connected, but the contents of
each cell are not connected in any way. There are no tubes here, but
there is an impermeable layer in between the cells. These types of cell
connections are useful in places that need to contain certain fluids,
like in the bladder, the intestines or the kidneys.
Anchoring Junction (Desmosomes)
With desmosomes, cell membranes are connected by thread like
substances that connect the cells across the space in between cells.
Much like tight junctions, desmosomes physically hold the cells
together, but do not allow fluids or materials to pass from the inside of
one cell to the next. These connections are also attached to the
scaffolding of the cell, called the cytoskeleton, to help with structural
support. The space in between the cells allows for water and solutes to
flow freely between each cell without compromising the connection.
This is convenient for areas of our body that experience high stress
like in our skin or our intestines because the space in between the
cells offer flexibility that the other junctions can’t.
Surface Proteins
Surface Proteins
Cell surface proteins are proteins that are embedded in or span the
layer of cell membranes of more complex organisms. These proteins
are integral to the way in which a cell interacts with the environment
around it, including other cells. Some of these proteins, especially ones
that are exposed to the external side of the membrane, are called
glycoproteins because they have carbohydrates attached to their outer
surfaces.
Function of Surface Proteins
allow Cells to communicate with other Cells
mark the surface of blood cells, which helps the immune system
recognize "self" cells from non-self cells(antigens)
 change shape of cell membrane and cell, helps cell move
transport proteins which are channel, carrier, and pumps and also
glycoproteins.
located on the proteins which recognize chemical signals for the cell