Earthquake

What Is Seismology?

• Seismology is the study of earthquakes and

seismic waves that move through and
around the earth.

• A seismologist is a scientist who studies

earthquakes and seismic waves.
 What Are Seismic Waves?

• Seismic waves are the waves of energy

caused by the sudden breaking of rock
within the earth or an explosion.

• They are the energy that travels through the

earth and is recorded on seismographs.
Earthquakes are the only natural disasters that are
mostly harmless to humans! The only danger comes
from buildings designed not to withstand the largest
possible earthquakes in the area.
Myths and legends
• What are earthquakes?
• Elastic rebound theory
• Waves generated by earthquakes:
P waves, S waves, Surface waves
• Locating earthquakes
• Earthquake magnitude
• Earthquake distributions
 Convection

Convection in the
astenosphere enables
tectonic processes –
PLATE
TECTONICS
 Why do earthquakes occur?

• Fractures, faults
• Energy released
and propagates in
all directions as
seismic waves
causing
earthquakes
epicenter
focus
 How earthquakes occur?

• Earthquakes occur at FAULTS.

• Fault is a weak zone separating two
geological blocks.
• Tectonic forces
cause the blocks
to move relative
one to another.
How earthquakes occur?
Elastic rebound theory
 How earthquakes occur?
Elastic rebound theory

• Because of friction, the blocks do not slide, but are deformed.

• When the stresses within rocks exceed friction, rupture occurs.
• Elastic energy, stored in the system, is released after rupture in waves that
radiate outward from the fault.
 Where do earthquakes occur:

1) Most earthquakes occur along the edge of the

oceanic and continental plate

2) Along faults: normal, reverse, transform

 What are earthquakes?
Earthquakes are vibrations of earth,
produced by the rupture and sudden
movement of rocks, which are caused by
stresses beyond the elastic limits of the
rocks.
• The point inside the Earth where the rupture
generates earthquake energy is called focus or
hypocenter. The point at the Earth's surface
directly above the focus is the epicenter.
• Elastic rebound. As
rock is deformed, it
bends, storing elastic
energy. Once strained
beyond its breaking
point, the rock cracks,
releasing the stored-up
energy, which
generates earthquake
waves.
• This fence was offset 2.5 m in the 1906 San
Francisco earthquake (G.K. Gilbert)
Waves generated by earthquakes
Three types of waves are generated by an
earthquake:
P waves (primary waves),
S waves (secondary waves)
 P-Waves
• The first kind of body wave is the P
wave or primary wave.
• This is the fastest kind of seismic wave,
and, consequently, the first to 'arrive' at a
seismic station. The P wave can move
through solid rock and fluids.
• It pushes and pulls the rock it moves
through just like sound waves push and pull
the air.
Animation
http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/images/P-wave_animation.gif
 S-Waves
• The second type of body wave is the S
wave or secondary wave, which is the
second wave you feel in an earthquake.
• An S wave is slower than a P wave and can
only move through solid rock, not through
any liquid medium.
• S waves move rock particles up and down,
or side-to-side--perpendicular to the
direction that the wave is traveling in (the
direction of wave propagation).
 S-Waves

http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/images/S-wave_animation.gif
 L- Waves

• The first kind of surface wave is called

a Love wave, named after A.E.H. Love.

• It's the fastest surface wave and moves the

ground from side-to-side.

• Confined to the surface of the crust, Love

waves produce entirely horizontal motion.
L- Waves
 Seismic waves: forms
• P-waves:
– called compressional, or push-pull waves
– Propagate parralel to the direction in which the wave is moving
– Move through solids, liquids

• S-waves:
– Called shear waves
– Propagate the movement perpendicular
to the direction in which the wave is
moving

• Surface waves (L-waves or long waves).

– Complex motion
– Up-and-down and side-to-side
– Slowest
– Most damage to structures, buildings
 Elastic waves – Body waves

P-waves:

S-waves:
• P waves are compressional waves, which push
(compress) and pull (expand) rock particles in the
direction the waves are traveling.
• S waves are shear waves. The particles in S waves moves
at right angles to the direction the waves are traveling.
Surface waves

• The motions of surface waves are more complex.

There are two types of surface waves that
propagate along Earth's surface
Wave speeds

• P waves are faster than S waves.

• S waves are faster than surface waves.
• Thus, in a typical seismogram, P wave
arrives first, then S wave, and then surface
wave.
• Typical seismogram, showing P wave, S wave,
and surface wave.
• Measuring earthquakes

• Seismometers:
instruments that detect
seismic waves
• Seismographs
Record intensity, height
and amplitude of seismic
waves
• Seismograph. The inertia of the suspended mass
tends to keep it motionless, while the recording
instrument vibrates with the earth.
 Earthquake distributions
• A great majority of earthquakes originates
in a few narrow zone of the globe along
plate boundaries.
Earthquake depths

• Earthquakes occur at depths from near the surface

to nearly 700 km, although a great majority of
earthquakes are shallow.

Shallow earthquakes: 0-70 km

intermediate earthquakes: 70 - 300 km
deep earthquakes: 300-700 km
• Earthquake damage

• Ground Failure - constructions collapse

• Fires - from broken gas and electrical lines
• Landslides - EQ's triggered; occur in
hilly/mountainous areas.
• Liquefaction - water-saturated, unconsolidated
materials flow
• Tsunami (seismic sea waves; "tidal" waves) -
can grow up to 65 m
• Earthquake risk and prediction

• Long-term methods Real-time 24 Hour

Forecast

1) seismic hazard maps

2) probability analysis based

on:
- historical EQ records
- geologic EQ records
- slip-rate on active faults
- frequency and magnitude
of recent EQ's
 • Short-term predictions

Precursor phenomena (<1 year to days)

1. Foreshocks: usually increase in magnitude

2. Ground deformation

3. Fluctuations in water well levels

4. Changes in local radio wave characteristics

5. Anomalous animal behavior???

• Earthquake

In order to estimate the parameters, seismologists need:

 Complete earthquake catalogues that extend well into
the past,
 Information on the soil structure and properties at the
construction site, as well as on the path between
epicentre and the site,
 Records of strong earthquakes and small events from
near-by epicentral regions,
 Results of geological surveys ...