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A Topical Approach to
LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT

Chapter Two:
Biological Beginnings

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Objectives

• Discuss the evolutionary perspective on life-

span development
• Describe what genes are and how they
influence human development
• Identify some important reproductive challenges
and choices
• Explain some of the ways that heredity and
environment interact to produce individual
differences in development
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How did human evolution come about?

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The Evolutionary Perspective

• Natural selection
– Evolutionary process where the best adapted
individuals in a species survive and reproduce
• Natural selection and adaptive behavior
– Darwin: On the Origin of Species (1859)
– All organisms must adapt to particular places,
climates, food sources, and ways of life
• Infants attachment
• Eagle’s claws

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The Evolutionary Perspective

• Evolutionary psychology
– Emphasizes adaptation, reproduction, and survival
of the fittest in shaping behavior
– Evolution explains human physical features and
behaviors
• Favors behaviors that increase reproductive
success—the ability to pass your genes to the
next generation

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Genetic Foundations of Development

• THE COLLABORATIVE GENE

– Nucleus of a human cell:
• Chromosomes — thread-like structures
• DNA — double helix-shaped molecule
• Genes — units of hereditary information

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Genetic Foundations of Development

Cells, Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA

Nucleus (center of
cell) contains
chromosomes and
genes Chromosomes are Gene: a segment of DNA
threadlike structures (spiraled double chain)
composed of DNA containing the hereditary
molecules code

Fig. 2.3 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7
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How do the genes

manage to get passed
from generation to
generation and end up
in all of the trillion cells
in the body?

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Genetic Foundations of Development

• Genes and chromosomes

– Mitosis — cell nucleus duplicates
– Meiosis — cell division forms gametes (eggs,
sperms)
– Fertilization — egg and sperm form zygote
– Genetic variability in the population
– X and Y chromosomes determine sex

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Genetic Foundations of Development

• Genes and chromosomes

– Sources of variability
• Each zygote is unique
– Identical – monozygotic twins; a single zygote
splits into 2 identical replicas
– Fraternal – dizygotic twins; 2 eggs are
fertilized by different sperm creating 2 zygotes
– Muted genes due to environmental agent
» radiation

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Genetic Foundations of Development

• Genetic principles
– Dominant-recessive genes principle
– Dominant – one gene of a pair always exert its
effect and overrides the potential influence of the
other gene—called the recessive gene

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How brown-
haired parents B Brown
hair
can have a
blond-haired Blond
b hair
child: the gene
for blond hair is
recessive
Father Mother
Bb Bb

B B B b B b b b

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Genetic Foundations of Development

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Genetic Foundations of Development

• Chromosomal and gene-linked abnormalities

– Down syndrome: 2 copies of chromosome 21
• Sex-linked abnormalities
• Klinefelter syndrome: XXY instead of XY
• Fragile X syndrome: X in boys is fragile, breaks
• Turner syndrome: girl is XO instead of XX
• XYY syndrome: link to criminal males unproven

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Genetic Foundations of Development

• Chromosomal and gene-linked abnormalities

– Gene-linked abnormalities
• Phenylketonuria (PKU) – cannot utilize phenylalanine;
treated by diet
• Sickle-cell anemia – red blood cells affected
• Cystic fibrosis, diabetes, hemophilia, spina bifida
• Can sometimes be compensated for by other genes or
events

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Prenatal Development

• Course of prenatal development

– Germinal period: creation of fertilized egg; 1st 2
weeks
– Embryonic period: cell differentiation of embryo;
2-8 weeks
• Endoderm – digestive/respiratory systems
• Ectoderm – nervous system, sensory receptors
• Mesoderm – circulatory, bones, muscles, excretory and
reproductive systems
• Organagenesis: organ formation

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Prenatal Development

• Course of prenatal development

– Fetal period: lasts for 7 months, 3 trimesters; 2
months to birth
– Brain:
• 100 billion neurons (nerve cells)
• Neural tube formed from ectoderm
– Birth defects can cause death, retardation
• Neurogenesis – new cells formed
• Neuronal migration – cell specialization

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Prenatal Development
The Three Trimesters of Prenatal Development

0-4 weeks Less than 1/10th of inch long

First 8 weeks Less than 1 inch long
trimester
12 weeks 3 inches long, wt: 1 ounce
16 weeks 5.5 inches long, wt: 4 ounces
Second 20 weeks 10-12 inches, wt: ½ -1 lbs
trimester
24 weeks 11-14 inches, wt: 1-1½ lbs
28 weeks 14-17 inches, wt: 2½ -3 lbs
Third 32 weeks 16½ -18 inches, wt: 4-5 lbs
trimester
36-38 weeks 19 inches, wt: 6 lbs

Fig. 2.10 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 19
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Prenatal Development

Prenatal Diagnostic Tests

• Tests for abnormality
– Ultrasound sonography
– Fetal MRI: better than ultrasound
– Chorionic villus sampling: samples placenta
– Amniocentesis: samples amniotic fluid
– Maternal blood screening (triple screen test)
– Noninvasive prenatal diagnosis (NIPD): tests
fetal cells (DNA) in mother’s blood

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Prenatal Development
Hazards to Prenatal Development
• Teratogens
– Agents causing birth defects
– Severity of damage affected by
• Dose
• Genetic susceptibility
• Time of exposure
– Prescription, nonprescription drugs

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Prenatal Development
Hazards to Prenatal Development
• Teratogens
– Psychoactive drugs
• Caffeine, cocaine, methamphetamines, marijuana, and
heroin
• Alcohol and fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
• Nicotine’s link to SIDS, ADHD, low birth weight
– Paternal smoking during pregnancy

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Teratogens and Timing of Their Effects on
Prenatal Development

Fig. 2.12 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 23
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Prenatal Development
Hazards to Prenatal Development
• Other prenatal factors
– Incompatible blood types (Rh factor)
– Maternal diseases
• STDs, HIV and AIDS; Rubella measles
– Diet and nutrition (vitamins, folic acid); weight
• Toxins in foods, mercury in fish
– Maternal age, emotional states, and stress
– Environmental hazards (toxins, waste)

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Prenatal Development

Prenatal Care
• Prenatal care varies around the world
– Quality of medical care visits, education
– Low-birth weight and infant mortality rates
– Outside the United States: free/low cost prenatal
care, liberal maternity leave
– Impact of cultural/ethnic beliefs about pregnancy

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Heredity and Environment Interaction:

The Nature-Nurture Debate

• Behavior genetics
– Studies genetic impact on traits and development
– Tests for genetic/environmental influences
• Twin studies
– Shared and nonshared factors
• Adoption studies
– Effects of biological and adoptive parents

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Heredity and Environment Interaction:

The Nature-Nurture Debate

• Heredity-environment correlations
– Passive genotype-environment
• Parents provide/guide child’s interests
– Evocative genotype-environment
• Some traits elicit more adult responses
– Active (niche-picking) genotype-environment
• Child seeks/selects favorable environments

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Heredity and Environment Interaction:

The Nature-Nurture Debate

• Heredity-environment correlations
– Heredity directs environmental experiences
– In infancy, environment mostly parent-controlled
– As child ages, experiences extend beyond family
– Some environments can mute or strengthen
genetic traits
– Critics: heredity gets too much credit

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Heredity and Environment Interaction:

The Nature-Nurture Debate

• Epigenetic view
– Development is ongoing
– Bi-directional interchange of heredity/environment
– Infancy
• Positive and negative environmental experiences can
modify genetic activity

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The Heredity-Environment
and Epigenetic Views

Fig. 2.9 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 30
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The End

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