Overview of Ethics and

Information Technology
AN OPEN EDUCATION RESOU
RCE DEVELOPED TO ENCOUR
AGE
STUDENTS TO THINK, DISCUSS AND L
EARN
ABOUT ETHICAL CONCERNS IN COMPU
TING

MODULE ONE

JANNENE GORE
 Contents
 Objectives
 What are Ethics?
 Historical Determinants
 Contemporary Views
 General Ideas
 Legality
 Guidelines
 Codes of Ethics
 Computing Issues
 Objectives of this resource
3

 To provide a foundational understanding of ethical

theory
 To provide a process for analysing ethical situations
and for making decisions in response to them
 To provide the opportunity for students to consider
some ethical circumstances involving Information
Technology that have the potential to harm
individuals, organisations, or society
 Introduction: What are “Ethics”?
4

 “The study of what it means to „do the right thing”

 (A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and Ethical Issues for Computing Technology, (4th ed) Sara Baase
p.333)

 “Making a principle-based choice between

competing alternatives”
 (Ethical decision making and information technology : an introduction with cases. E A Kallman &
J P Grillo, p.3)

 Ethics comes from a Greek word meaning “usual” or

“the instituted order”

 Making principled decisions

 Making defensible decisions
 What are ethics? 5

 Principles based on our understanding of what is

good, right, proper, moral, or ethical.
 Ideas of behaviour that are commonly acceptable to
society
 We are influenced by a variety of sources such as
family, religious institutions, educational
institutions, professional organisations, government,
etc.
 Why care about ethics?
6

 Self-interest:
 Some unethical actions are also illegal
 Some can effect our careers and reputation

 For the interest of the others

 Some unethical decisions can hurt other individuals, the
organisation we work for, or society
 Ethical decision making impacts on the type of society that is
created
 Ethical practices are a reflection of the factors that the
members of a particular society place value on
 What is Ethical Decision 7

Making?

 When faced with an ethical dilemma the objective is

to make a judgment based on well-reasoned,
defensible ethical principles
 The risk is poor judgment i.e. a low-quality decision
 A low-quality decision can have a wide range of
negative consequences
 Historical Determination
8 of Ethics
Ten Commandments
 Religious ethical
standards–
Judaism,
Christianity and
Islam
 Divine Command
Theory
 Good actions are
those aligned with
the will of God
and bad actions
are contrary to the
will of God.
Further Information on Christian Religion Beliefs
 Historical Determination of Ethics
9

 Community ethical standards. Usually a consensus

interpretation of religious ethics but added to or
modified where necessary

 Moral philosophers – Socrates and Plato – mused

on the nature of men and of explanations for their
actions

 More information about Socrates

 More information about Plato
Immanuel Kant
10

Philosopher.
1724 - 1804
Deontology
Absolutism
Kantian Ethics
Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy - Deontology
 Deontology
11

From the Greek word deon meaning “Duty”

Etymology
De (to disestablish connection).
Ontos (Greek ontoV
Meaning “being).

Immanuel Kant‟suse of the word essentially means that we should “separate

ourselves” and our own needs and preferences from our ethical decisions. Thus
we do right as a matter of “duty”

Our ethical methods and values should arise outside ourselves. They do not
depend on humans for their existence.
 Kant‟s Principles
12

 Kantian Ethics – also known as Absolutism

 Based on the idea that the only consideration is
the “Act” itself
 Actions are either intrinsically moral or not
moral
 Decisions should be based on whether or not the
action is a moral one
 Kant‟s principles
13

1. The principle of CONSISTENCY: Judge your actions

by considering the outcome should your action be made a
universal law. (i.e. What if it was compulsory for everyone
to do what you are doing?)

2. The principle of RESPECT: Always consider human

beings as ends in themselves, never as means to an end.
(i.e. Treat others as valued people. Never just use them for
your purposes.) This is Kant‟sprinciple of “respect”.

3. The principle of DUTY: Actions performed out of a

sense of duty (that also conform to 1 & 2 above) are
morally praiseworthy actions.
 Kant would say…
14

 We have responsibilities and duties.

 Some things are “right” and some are “wrong”

regardless of whether we agree or not.

 Doing “right” will not necessarily be to our

advantage. In fact, whether an action is or is not
to our advantage is a very poor way of judging its
merits.
 Strengths of Kantian ethics
15

 In Theory it is based on “pure reason”:-

 Provides a much needed challenge to moral

relativism.

 Facilitates ethics based on the big picture.

 What is seen as “hypothetical” is really a “logical
extension” of consequences.
 Takes moral consequences seriously.
 Avoids problems caused by the complexity and
diversity of human opinion, culture and need.
 Challenges to Kantian ethics
16

 “Pure reason”:-

 Lacks compassion.
 Leaves no flexibility to take human frailty and
diversity into account.
 Offers a single moral solution to what is really a
complex and diverse problem.
 Can be challenged as “essentially hypothetical”.
 Can be challenged as being simplistic.
 Contemporary Ethical Theory
17

 Emphasis on the individual rather than the

community.
 Rights rather than duties or responsibilities.
 Harm minimisation.
 Relativism (rejection of external authority
sources).
 Egoism
 Consequentialism. (Teleology = telos = goal)
 Societal changes 18

 A move from Absolutism to Relativism

 Similar shift in Ethics towards the

consequentialist approach , where the
focus is on the results or the consequences
of the “Act”
 Relativism
19

 Relativism – No real distinction between truth and

opinion. Right and wrong are relative to
individual or community opinion.
Subjective and Cultural
 No standards or rules of behaviour can be
reasonably applied at all times and all places.
 Actions must be judged as moral depending on
the time and culture in which they take place.
 What is considered moral can change
considerably over time within a culture.
 Utilitarianism 20

Act and Rule

 Consequentialist theory
 Attempts to determine whether an action is
moral by considering the consequences.
 Actions are moral if they create the greatest
happiness (utility) for the greatest number of
people.

 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Utilitarianism

 The Morality of Murder?

 Whats the right thing to do? Professor Michael

Sandel at Harvard Law
 Two Types of Ethical Choices

22

 Right vs wrong: choosing right from wrong is the

easiest
 Right vs right
 Situation contains shades of gray i.e. all alternatives have
desirable and undesirable results
 Choosing “the lesser of two evils”
 Objective: make a defensible decision
 Choosing Right from Wrong

 Examples:
 Stealing
 Lying
 Murdering

 Society prohibits these acts

 Does the scale of the situation change things?

 Finders Keepers?
 Scale
 Scale: Murder is murder.
 However, what about stealing? If you receive $100 in
error in your bank account that you know is not
yours, what do you do? What if it‟s$1,000? What if
$100,000? What if $1?
 Finding things: Wallet with lots of money? Coins left
in a phone box?
 Is Wrong a continuum from “badly wrong” to “not
very wrong”? White lies? Telling the police you
weren‟t speeding?
 Choosing Right from Right

 Is it wrong to steal if your child is starving?

 It is right not to steal. It is right not to allow your child to
starve.
 Is it wrong to lie to an ill friend?
 Itis right to tell the truth. It is right to be optimistic
when
talking to a sick friend
 Ethical choice is often complex
 Making Defensible Decisions

 First step in ethical decision making is to recognise

that an ethical dilemma exists
 “defensible decision”
 Two well-meaning individuals can examine the same situation
and arrive at different courses of action
 High-quality ethical decision: based on reason and
can be defended according to ethical concepts
 Ethical decision making is not a science. It is
however a skill -- a survival skill
 Behavioural model for ethical decision
making Govt/Legal
Environment
Work Legislation Social
environment Administrative environment
Corporate goals agencies
Religious values
Stated policy Judicial system
Humanistic values
Corporate culture Cultural values
Societal values

Professional Decision Process

environment
Codes of conduct
Licensing requirements
Professional relationships
Information acquisition Ethical behaviour
Information processing Decision
Cognitive process
Unethical behaviour
Percieved rewards
Percieved losses

Individual attributes
Moral level
Personal goals
Motivation mechanism
Position/status
Personal
Self concept
environment
Life experiances
Peer group Personallity
Family
27 Demographics
 Ethics vs Legality
28

 Actions can be
 Ethical and legal
 Ethical but Illegal
 Not ethical but legal
 Not ethical and Illegal
 If case in 1 or 4, decision is obvious
 If case in 2 or 3, or if law is not clear then further
analysis is needed.
 If law provides answer, no further investigation is
needed
 Actions can be…
 Ethical and Legal  Not Ethical and Not
 Using licensed s/w Legal
 Obeying speed limit  Murder

 Buying s/w online,  Sexual harassment

buying cd  Child porn
 Not Ethical and Legal  Downloading
 Gambling music
 Having an affair  Hacking any sites

 Prostitution  Ethical and Not Legal

 Visiting adult porn web  Vigilante stuff
site  Political activism
 strip clubs  Smacking
What is the Law‟sPlace in Morality?
30

Law is basically legislated morality. The purpose is to

enforce penalties and sanctions upon those who do not
act morally.

Laws are usually enacted when either

1. There is a need to restrain some morally harmful activity.
2. There is a risk that people may do something morally
harmful.
3. When voluntary and professional restraints on morality
either aren‟tworking or the potential outcomes of
immoral actions are sufficiently serious as to concern the
whole community.
 Progression from Morals to Law
31
Accepted Moral
No legal force. However, these
constraints
behavioural constraints are agreed by
“Community Consensus” and enforced by
relational sanctions.

Quasi legal authority. Enforced outside

Professional Codes of
of the legal system. These behavioural
Ethics & “Good
constraints are agreed by the individual‟s
Practice
“Professional Body” and enforced by
professional sanctions.

Legal authority. Codified and enacted

by Parliament. Enforced by the justice Legislative
system. These moral constraints are Constraints on
agreed by the whole community and business practice
given “teeth” by the Law.
 How is legislation developed?

 Exercise:
 Investigate the mechanisms in your society for the
development of new Law. Discuss with friends and colleagues
what opportunities you have to participate in this process.
 Investigate the mechanisms in your society for the revision of
existing Law. Discuss with friends and colleagues what
opportunities you have to participate in this process.

 Develop a plan for participation based on the mechanisms

used locally.
 What is the New Zealand
Parliament?

 The supreme legislative power

 The Sovereign (Governor-General)
 The House of Representatives

 Four main functions

 Provide representation for the people
 Pass the legislation
 Scrutinise the activities of the Government
 Approve the supply of public funds to the Government

 Parliament makes the Law

 The Government administers the Law
 The judiciary (the courts) interprets the Law
 New Zealand Parliament
 Legislative Process in New Zealand

 The law is the framework within which citizens

consent to be governed
 Legitimacy given by citizens to lawmakers by virtue
of their election
 Citizens consent to abide by these laws
 Bills are proposed
 Government Bills – Policy platform
 Members Bills – Introduced by Ballot
 Local Bills – Promoted by Local Authorities
 Private Bills – Relate to exemptions from general law for an
individual or group
How a Bill becomes an Act of Parliament

Bill Introduced

1st Reading – Initial Debate

Select Committee – Public submissions, Amendments, Reports to house

2nd Reading – Main Debate on the principles after amendments from Select Committee

Committee of the whole house – Detailed consideration of each clause

3rd Reading – Final Debate on whether bill should be passed

Royal Assent – Governor General assents to the bill becoming an Act of Parliament

(Office of the Clerk of the House of Representatives2006)

 Guidelines to Ethical Decision
Making

Informal Guidelines
to recognise if facing an ethical problem
Is there something you or others prefer to keep quiet?
 The shushers test: Who wants to keep things quiet?
 The Mum test: Would you be ashamed to tell your mother?
 The TV test: Would you be happy if your actions we on national
TV
 The market test: Would your company be able to use the
behaviour as a marketing tool?

 The smell test: does your instinct tells you something is

wrong?
 Informal Guidelines

 Does the behaviour violate the “Golden Rule”?

 treat others the way you wish them to treat you.

 This is the rule that most rational people use when

making decisions about how to behave. It is very
easy to determine whether we would like a particular
thing to happen to us – so we are able to use the “other
persons shoes test” in order to determine the
appropriate action.
 Informal Guidelines

 Exercise:
 Discuss with friends if you have used
any of the informal guidelines in the
last seven days?
 Write a list of those you used and for
what reason.
 How helpful were these in deciding what
the best behaviour should be.
 39
Guidelines to Ethical Decision Making

Formal Guidelines
 Is the act illegal?
 Does the act violate corporate policy?
 Does it violate corporate or professional code of
conduct or ethics?
 What if all above guidelines not helpful?
 Look at ethical principles
 Professional Codes of Ethics

 What characteristics mark a profession?

 Must have:

 Extensive training

 Intellectual skills

 Ability to provide an important service in society

 Might have:

 Certification or licensing requirement

 Organisation of members

 Autonomy

 Code of Ethics
 Professional Codes of Ethics

 Professional groups often adopt particular standards

and enshrine these is Codes of Conduct or Codes of
Ethics
 In New Zealand computing professionals can be
members of the Institute of Information Technology
Professionals
 This group – IITP have a Code of Professional
Conduct that guides members in their ethical
decision making
 Professional Codes of Ethics
42

 Exercise: IITP Code of Professional Conduct

 Read the IITP Code of Professional Conduct
 In particular, consider the Tenets of the Code (Pg 5)

 What ethical theories do you think underlie the tenets of the

Code?
 Are they historical determinants, or more contemporary
models?
 Are informal guidelines obvious in the tenets?

 Discuss your thoughts with others

 What are the sanctions for breaching the Code?
 Computer Ethics vs Regular Ethics

 Is there an ethical difference between browsing

through someone‟s computer files and browsing
through her desk drawer?
 No difference
 New technologies can make them seem different
 Technology makes some unethical actions easier to take and
easier to conceal
 Technology makes it easier for people to be emotionally and
physically distant from the consequences of their actions
 Are “computer” ethics different?

 Computers may provide more opportunities to

breach ethics
 Opportunities: much more information is stored
electronically now. Payroll data might be available more
easily in a business, for example, whereas in the past it
would have been locked away.
 Physical distance means you don‟thave to open any doors
marked Private. “I only looked at the file, I didn‟ttake it.”
 The volume of computer data also links to privacy
issues.
 Difficulties posed by computers

 Altered relationship
 Personal contact reduced and the speed of the communication

 Electronic information is more fragile

 Easily changed

 More vulnerable to unauthorised access

 Easily reproduced without affect the original

 Protection of information needs conflict with the

benefits of information sharing.
 Order of magnitude effect
 Effort effect
 Order of Magnitude effect

 Many unethical activities that are possible

without computers are not done because
 Their limited scope also limits the rewards (e.g.
Scam
letters)
 Computer use greatly increases the “effect”
of some activities (e.g. SPAM) thus even a
very small hit rate is worthwhile due to the
vast (order of magnitude) of distribution.
 The effort effect

 In any group of people some will do unethical things

provided
 There is a reasonable chance of getting away with
it.
 It is “worth the effort” (rewards greater than
costs)
 Computers
 Reduce the effort for unethical users

 Offer anonymity

 Appear to provide barriers that make

detection difficult
 Why should we care?

 Live an authentic life

 integrity

 Increase success
 Well suited to the kinds of interactions needed for a thriving business

 Cultivate inner peace

 Calmer and more focused

 Creates a stable society

 Ethical people working together in coordinated ways.

 May help in afterlife

 Religious traditions believe ethics is the key to something greater
 Summary
 Ethical decisions impact on the quality of our lives
 Ethical expectations are all around us and influence
our behaviour
 Ethical decisions are complex and may well differ
over time
 Ethical decision making has been studied for
centuries
 Computing provides a space for poor behaviour