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 Important principles of geology

• There are a number of important

principles in geology. Many of
these involve the ability to
provide the relative ages of strata
or the manner in which they were
formed.
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• The principle of intrusive relationships
concerns crosscutting intrusions. In
geology, when an igneous intrusion cuts
across a formation of sedimentary rock, it
can be determined that the igneous
intrusion is younger than the sedimentary
rock.
• There are a number of different types of
intrusions, including stocks, laccoliths,
batholiths, sills and dikes.
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•
• The principle of cross-cutting relationships
pertains to the formation of faults and the age of
the sequences through which they cut. Faults are
younger than the rocks they cut; accordingly, if a
fault is found that penetrates some formations
but not those on top of it, then the formations
that were cut are older than the fault, and the
ones that are not cut must be younger than the
fault. Finding the key bed in these situations may
help determine whether the fault is a normal fault
or a thrust fault.

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 The principle of inclusions and components
states that, with sedimentary rocks, if inclusions (or
clasts) are found in a formation, then the inclusions
must be older than the formation that contains
them.

For example, in sedimentary rocks, it is common for

gravel from an older formation to be ripped up and
included in a newer layer.

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 – A similar situation with igneous rocks
occurs when xenoliths are found. These
foreign bodies are picked up as magma or
flows, and are incorporated lava, later to
cool in the matrix. As a result, xenoliths
are older than the rock which contains
them.

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The principle of uniformitarianism states
that the geologic processes observed in
operation that modify the Earth's crust at
present have worked in much the same
way over geologic time. A fundamental
principle of geology advanced by the 18th
century Scottish physician and geologist
James Hutton

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• is that "the present is the key to the past."
In Hutton's words: "the past history of our
globe must be explained by what can be
seen to be happening now."

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 The principle of original horizontality states
that the deposition of sediments occurs as
essentially horizontal beds.

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• Observation of modern marine and non-
marine sediments in a wide variety of
environments supports this generalization
(although cross-bedding is inclined, the
overall orientation of cross-bedded units is
horizontal).

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 The principle of superposition states that
a sedimentary rock layer in a tectonically
undisturbed sequence is younger than the
one beneath it and older than the one above
it. Logically a younger layer cannot slip
beneath a layer previously deposited.

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• This principle allows sedimentary
layers to be viewed as a form of
vertical time line, a partial or complete
record of the time elapsed from
deposition of the lowest layer to
deposition of the highest bed.

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 The principle of faunal succession is based
on the appearance of fossils in sedimentary
rocks. As organisms exist at the same time
period throughout the world, their presence
or (sometimes) absence may be used to
provide a relative age of the formations in
which they are found

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• .
• Based on principles laid out by William
Smith almost a hundred years before the
publication of Charles Darwin's theory of
evolution, the principles of succession were
developed independently of evolutionary
thought.

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• The principle becomes quite complex,
however, given the uncertainties of
fossilization, the localization of fossil types
due to lateral changes in habitat (facies
change in sedimentary strata), and that
not all fossils may be found globally at the
same time.

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