Hook’s Law:

This is the fundamental law of elasticity.

“Provided the strain is small (with in elastic limit), the stress is

proportional to the strain”.

Modulus of elasticity or Coefficient of elasticity: (E)

If the strain is small (with in elastic limit), the ratio between

stress and strain is constant. This ratio is called modulus of
elasticity.
• Modulus of elasticity or Coefficient of elasticity: (E)

E = Stress/Strain

E has same dimensions as of stress.

 Different types of elasticity (Elastic Moduli):

1. Young’s modulus (or Elasticity of Length):

(Y or E)

2. Bulk modulus (or Elasticity of Volume): (K)

3. Modulus of rigidity (or Torsion modulus or

Elasticity of Shape): (η)
 Different types of elasticity (Elastic Moduli):
1. Young’s modulus (or Elasticity of Length): (Y or E):

If a deforming force is applied to a body only along a

particular direction:

Then the force applied per unit area of the cross section
is called linear or longitudinal stress.

And the change per unit length is called linear or

longitudinal strain.
 Different types of elasticity (Elastic Moduli):

The ratio of linear stress to linear strain with in the

elastic limit gives the coefficient of linear elasticity or
young’s modulus.

Linear stress=F/A, Linear strain=l/L

Y (or E) = (F/A)/(l/L)
=(FL/Al)
 Different types of elasticity (Elastic Moduli):
2. Bulk modulus (or Elasticity of Volume): (K)

If a force is applied normally and uniformly over the surface of

a body of area A, such that there is a change of volume(v) in
its original volume (V), but no change in its shape:

Then the force applied per unit area of the cross section is
called normal stress.

And the change in volume per unit volume is called volume

strain.
 Different types of elasticity (Elastic Moduli):

The ratio of normal stress to volume strain with in the

elastic limit gives the elasticity of volume or bulk
modulus.
normal stress = F/A, volume strain = - v/V

K = - (F/A)/(v/V) = - (FV/Av) = - PV/v

K is also called incompressibility of the material of the

body.
1/K is called its compressibility.
 Different types of elasticity (Elastic Moduli):
3. Modulus of rigidity (or Torsion modulus or Elasticity
of Shape): (η)

If a force is applied tangentially over the surface of a

body of area A, there is a movement of the contiguous
layers of the body one over the other.

Therefore, although there is a change in the shape of the

body, but no change in its volume.
 Different types of elasticity (Elastic Moduli):
Let take a cubical body of each edge length L.

Lower edge DCca is fixed.

If tangential force F be applied to the upper face ABba.

For small force, the layers of the cube parallel to the upper
faces move one over the other with point A shifting to Aʹ, B to
Bʹ, b to bʹ and a to aʹ through an angle θ.

Shear stress = F/A=F/L2 Shear Strain (θ): l/L

Modulus of rigidity (torsion modulus) = η = (F/A)/θ
η = (F/L2)/l/L=FL/Al

Relation is same as was for young’s modulus.

Difference: F/A is the tangential stress not linear stress.

THE TENSILE STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
The relation between the stress and the strain for a given
material under tensile stress can be found experimentally.

In a standard test of tensile properties, a test cylinder or a

wire is stretched by an applied force.

The fractional change in length (the strain) and the

applied force needed to cause the strain are recorded.

The applied force is gradually increased in steps and the

change in length is noted.
The stress-strain curves vary from material to material.
These curves help us to understand how a given material
deforms with increasing loads.

A graph is plotted between the stress (which is equal in

magnitude to the applied force per unit area) and the
strain produced.

Analogous graphs for compression and shear stress may

also be obtained.
From the graph, we can see that in the region
between O to A, the curve is linear. In this region,
Hooke’s law is obeyed.

A typical graph for a metal.

The body regains its original dimensions when the
applied force is removed. In this region, the solid
behaves as an elastic body.

In the region from A to B, stress and strain are not

proportional. Nevertheless, the body still returns to
its original dimension when the load is removed.

The point B in the curve is

known as yield point (also
known as elastic limit) and
the corresponding stress is
known as yield strength
(Sy) of the material.
If the load is increased further, the stress developed
exceeds the yield strength and strain increases rapidly
even for a small change in the stress. The portion of the
curve between B and D shows this.

When the load is removed, say at some point C between B

and D, the body does not regain its original dimension.

In this case, even when the

stress is zero, the strain is not
zero. The material is said to
have a permanent set.

The deformation is said to be

plastic deformation.
The point D on the graph is the ultimate tensile
strength (Su) of the material.

Beyond this point, additional strain is produced

even by a reduced applied force and fracture occurs
at point E.
Note:

1.The ratio of the ultimate strength and the

working stress is called the factor of safety.
2.In designing engineering structures the factor of
safety is adjusted normally between 5 to 10.
3.If the ultimate strength and fracture points (D
and E) are close, the material is said to be brittle.
4.If they are far apart, the material is said to be
ductile.
WORK DONE PER UNIT VOLUME/
ENERGY PER UNIT VOLUME IN A STRAIN:

1. Longitudinal Strain:

If F be the stretching force applied with in its elastic

limit to a wire of length L and of cross section A,
such that its length increases by l.

Young’s modulus (Y): FL

Y=
Al
YAl
F=
L
WORK DONE PER UNIT VOLUME/
ENERGY PER UNIT VOLUME IN A STRAIN:

Work done for an additional small increase (dl) in

the length of the wire:
�YAl �
dW = F .dl = � � dl
�L �
Work done during whole increase in length (l) of
the wire from 0 to l:
l l
�YAl �
W =� F .dl = �� � dl
0 0�
L �
 1 �YAl � 1
W= � � l = F .l
2 �L � 2

Volume of the wire = L×A

Work done per unit volume of the wire:

1 1F l
F .l =
=2 2AL
AL
=1/2(stress × strain)
WORK DONE PER UNIT VOLUME/
ENERGY PER UNIT VOLUME IN A STRAIN:

2. Volume Strain:

Let p be the pressure applied normally over an area

A of a body of volume V such that its volume
decreases by v.
pV
Bulk Modulus (K) K = [-ve sign omitting]
v
Kv
p=
V
WORK DONE PER UNIT VOLUME/
ENERGY PER UNIT VOLUME IN A STRAIN:

If due to force small movement is dx so work done:

dW = F .dx = pAdx

dW = pdv ,dv is small decrease in volume

Work done for whole decrease in volume from 0 to
v: v v
�Kv �
W =� p.dv = �� � dv
0 0�
V �
 2
1 Kv 1 Kv
W= = v
2 V 2 V

1
W = pv
2
Work done or energy store in body called strain
energy per unit volume:

1 pv
=
2V
= 1/2 (stress × strain)
WORK DONE PER UNIT VOLUME/
ENERGY PER UNIT VOLUME IN A STRAIN:

3. Shearing Strain:

Let the upper face of a cube of each edge L be

sheared through angle θ under a tangential force F.
WORK DONE PER UNIT VOLUME/
ENERGY PER UNIT VOLUME IN A STRAIN:
F 1
h= �
A q
F = h Aq
l
A=L 2 q=
L
2
Ll
F =h = h Ll
L
Work done during a small additional displacement
dl of a vertical edge=
dW = F .dl = h Lldl
Work done during the whole displacement from0tol
or during the whole shearing strain θ:
l
1
W =� h Ll.dl = h Ll 2

0
2
1 F 2 1
= Ll = Fl
2 Ll 2
Volume of the cube = L3
1 Fl
Work done per unit volume = 3
2L
1 F l
= 2
�
2L L

= 1/2 (stress × strain)

Poisson’s Ratio: σ

Poisson found that in case of elongation along its

length, there is simultaneous contraction of lateral
dimension.

Linear or tangential strain: The fractional change

strain in the direction of the applied force.

Lateral strain: The fractional change (strain) at

right angles (lateral) to the direction of the applied
force.
 Poisson’s Ratio: σ
• With in elastic limit lateral strain is proportional to the
longitudinal strain.

• Definition: The ratio between lateral strain to the linear

(longitudinal) strain due to a given tensile (expansive) or
compressive stress, with in the elastic limit, is found to be a
constant, called Poission’s Ratio for the material of the body.

σ = lateral strain/linear (or tangential strain)

σ is unit less quantity.
 Poisson’s Ratio: σ

σ = lateral strain/linear (or tangential strain)

Eg: in case of a stretched wire:

Length increases due to linear strain
Cross section decreases due to lateral strain.