Statistical

Chi-Square Analysis

METHODS
Ms. Eds D. Chiao
Quantitative Research – Senior High School
Elizabeth Seton School – Las Piñas Campus
Class Dialogue
 Statistical Method for Research

 Frequency and Percentage Distribution

 Mean
 Hypothesis Testing
 T-test
 1-sample
(Single Sample Single t-test)
 2-sample (Independent Sample t-test)
 Paired t-test
 Chi-square
 Frequency and Percentage Distribution
Frequency and Percentage Distribution
 Used to determine the percentage usually for data on
profile(e.g. level, age, gender, etc.)
Formula:

where: % = Percent
f = Frequency
N = Number of cases
 Mean
 Mean is one of the most popular quantitative research
methods. In causal-comparative and
experimentation, this method can be used in data
comparisons such as comparing performances of two
different variables within the same period of time or
comparing performance of the same variable during
different time periods.
 Mean implies average and it is the sum of a set of data
divided by the number of data. Mean can prove to be an
effective tool when comparing different sets of
data; however this method might be disadvantaged by the
impact of extreme values.
 Mean
Example 1: SPORTS
Joe wants to calculate the average number of points
during the basketball season. Here are his number of
points in 8 games:
12, 24, 8, 16, 11, 6, 5, and 15
What is the average number of points?
Example 2: ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
A researcher wants to determine the mean of students’
second term grades. For student 1, the grades are as follows:
83, 86, 82, 88, 91, 87, 88, 90.
What is the mean of the academic performance of Student 1?
 REVIEW
Steps to Hypothesis Testing
STEP 1:
State the Hypotheses

STEP 2:
Choose the Level of Significance

STEP 3:
Compute the Test Statistic

STEP 4:
Determine the Critical Value

STEP 5:
Draw a Conclusion
 Hypothesis Testing
 Hypothesis Testing is also called as Significance
Testing.
IN RESEARCH:
A research hypothesis is the statement created
by researchers when they speculate upon the outcome
of a research or experiment.
 T-test
A t-test is used
 to determine if there is a significant difference between
the means of two groups, which may be related in
certain features. It is mostly used when the data sets
would follow a normal distribution and may have
unknown variances.
Trivia:
 William Sealy Gosset first published a t-test
Why t-test?
 Came from Student test
 What kind of t is it?
1. Single sample t-test
– only 1 group; want to test against a hypothetical mean.

2. Independent samples t-test

– two means, two groups; no relation between groups, e.g.,
people randomly assigned to a single group.

3. Paired t-test
– two means. Either same people in both groups, or people
are related, e.g., husband-wife, left hand-right hand, hospital
patient and visitor.
 Single Sample T-test
also called as a one-sample t-test
 Statistical procedure used to determine whether a
sample of observations could have been generated
by a process with a specific mean.
EXAMPLE: Technology
You are interested in determining
whether an assembly line produces
laptop computers that weigh 2.3
kilograms. How do you test this
hypothesis?
 Single Sample T-test

HYPOTHESES
Null hypothesis assumes that the
difference between the sample
mean and the true mean is equal
to zero
Alternative hypothesis assumes that the
difference between the sample mean and the
true mean is not equal to zero
 Possible Research Questions for t-test

Medicine: Has the quality of life improved for patients

who took drug A as opposed to patients who took drug B?
Sociology: Are men more satisfied with their jobs than
women? Do they earn more?
Biology: Are foxes in one specific habitat larger than in
another?
Economics: Is the economic growth of developing
nations larger than the economic growth of the first world?
Marketing: Does customer segment A spend more on
groceries than customer segment B?
 Independent Sample T-test
also called as a two-sample t-test
 Statistical procedure used to compare the mean of two
independent variables
 If there is no before and after relationship between the
samples then the independent samples test is used.
FORMULA
UNIT 7: MENDELIAN GENETICS
CHI SQUARE ANALYSIS

AP BIOLOGY
 CHI SQUARE ANALYSIS:
 The chi square analysis allows you to use
statistics to determine if your data is “good” or
“non-biased” or if the data is “bad” or “biased”
 If statistics show the data is biased this means
that somehow the data is far different from what
you expected and something is causing the
difference beyond just normal chance
occurrences.
CHI SQUARE FORMULA:
 NULL HYPOTHESIS:
 The hypothesis is termed the null
hypothesis which states
 That there is NO substantial
statistical deviation (difference)
between observed values and the
expected values.
 In other words, the results or
differences that do exist between
observed and expected are totally
random and occurred by chance alone.
 CHI SQUARE VALUE:
 If the null hypothesis is supported by analysis
• The assumption is that mating is random and normal gene
segregation and independent assortment occurred.
• Note: this is the assumption in all genetic crosses! This is
normal meiosis occurring and we would expect random
segregation and independent assortment.
 If the null hypothesis is not supported by analysis
• The deviation (difference) between what was observed and
what the expected values were is very far apart…something
non-random must be occurring….
• Possible explanations: Genes are not randomly segregating
because they are sex-linked or linked on the same
chromosome and inherited together.
 DF VALUE:
 In order to determine the probability using a chi
square chart you need to determine the degrees
of freedom (DF)
 DEGREES OF FREEDOM: is the number of
phenotypic possibilities in your cross minus one.
 DF = # of groups (phenotype classes) – 1

 Using the DF value, determine the probability or

distribution using the Chi Square table
 If the level of significance read from the table is
greater than 0.05 or 5% then the null hypothesis
is accepted and the results are due to chance
alone and are unbiased.
 EXAMPLE:
DIHYBRID FRUIT FLY CROSS

x
Black body - Wild type
eyeless

F1: all wild type

 F1 CROSS PRODUCED THE FOLLOWING
OFFSPRING

5610 1881

Wild type Normal body -

eyeless

1896 622

Black body - Black body

eyeless
 ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS:
 Once the total number of offspring in each
class is counted, you have to determine
the expected value for this dihybrid cross.
 What are the expected outcomes of this
typical dihybrid cross? (9:3:3:1)
 9/16 should be wild type
 3/16 should be normal body eyeless
 3/16 should be black body wild eyes
 1/16 should be black body eyeless.
NOW CONDUCT THE ANALYSIS:
Phenotype Observed Hypothesis

Wild 5610

Eyeless 1881

Black body 1896

Eyeless, black body 622

Total 10009

To compute the expected value multiply the

expected 9/16:3/16:3/16:1/16 ratios by 10,009
CALCULATING EXPECTED VALUES:
 To calculate the expected value:
 Multiply the total number of offspring times the
expected fraction for each phenotype class
 TOTAL = 10,009
 Wild-type expected value: 9/16 x 10,009 =
5634
 Eyeless expected value: 3/16 x 10,009 =
1878
 Black body expected value: 3/16 x 10,009
= 1878
 Black body & Eyeless expected value:
1/16 x 10,009 = 626
NOW CONDUCT THE ANALYSIS:
Phenotype Observed Hypothesis

Wild 5610 5634

Eyeless 1881 1878

Black body 1896 1878

Eyeless, black body 622 626

Total 10009

Null hypothesis: The two traits (black body and eyeless) are not linked and
therefore randomly segregate & assort independently of each other during
gamete formation. The differences between the expected values and observed
values are due to chance alone.
 CALCULATING X2:
 Using the chi square formula
compute the chi square total for
this cross:
 (5610 - 5630)2 / 5630 = 0.07
 (1881 - 1877)2 / 1877 = 0.01
 (1896 - 1877)2 / 877 = 0.20
 (622 - 626)2 / 626 = 0.02
 x2 = 0.30
 How many degrees of freedom?
 4 phenotype classes – 1 = 3
degrees of freedom
CHI SQUARE TABLE:

REJECT
ACCEPT NULL HYPOTHESIS HYPOTHESIS
RESULTS ARE RANDOM RESULTS ARE NOT
RANDOM
Probability (p)
Degrees of
Freedom 0.95 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.50 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.01 0.001

1 0.004 0.02 0.06 0.15 0.46 1.07 1.64 2.71 3.84 6.64 10.83

2 0.10 0.21 0.45 0.71 1.39 2.41 3.22 4.60 5.99 9.21 13.82

3 0.35 0.58 1.01 1.42 2.37 3.66 4.64 6.25 7.82 11.34 16.27

4 0.71 1.06 1.65 2.20 3.36 4.88 5.99 7.78 9.49 13.38 18.47

5 1.14 1.61 2.34 3.00 4.35 6.06 7.29 9.24 11.07 15.09 20.52

6 1.63 2.20 3.07 3.83 5.35 7.23 8.56 10.64 12.59 16.81 22.46

7 2.17 2.83 3.82 4.67 6.35 8.38 9.80 12.02 14.07 18.48 24.32

8 2.73 3.49 4.59 5.53 7.34 9.52 11.03 13.36 15.51 20.09 26.12

9 3.32 4.17 5.38 6.39 8.34 10.66 12.24 14.68 16.92 21.67 27.88

10 3.94 4.86 6.18 7.27 9.34 11.78 13.44 15.99 18.31 23.21 29.59
 ANALYSIS QUESTIONS:
 Looking this statistic up on the chi square
distribution table tells us the following:
 The P value read off the table places our
chi square number of 0.30 with 3 degrees
of freedom closer to 0.95 or 95%
 This means that greater than 95% of the time when
our observed data is this close to our expected
data, the deviation from expected value is due to
random chance and not something else!
 We therefore accept our null hypothesis.
 ANALYSIS QUESTIONS:
 What is the critical value at which we
would reject the null hypothesis?
 For three degrees of freedom this value for our
chi square is > 7.815
 What if our chi square value was 8.0 with
4 degrees of freedom, do we accept or
reject the null hypothesis?
 Accept, since the critical value is >9.48 with 4
degrees of freedom.
HOW TO WRITE YOUR RESULTS:
 When reporting chi square data use the following
formula sentence….
 With _____ degrees of freedom, my chi square
value is _____, which gives me a p value between
_____% and _____%, I therefore _____ (accept/reject)
my null hypothesis.
 Use this sentence for your results section of your
lab write-up.
 Your explanation of what the significance of this
data means goes in your conclusion.