Absorption in Semiconductors

DIRECT BAND GAP

• Energy and momentum conservation is required in electron
–photon interaction.
• Conduction and valence band are vertically aligned in a
direct band gap semiconductor.
• Absorption of photon is obtained if an empty state in the
conduction band is available for which energy and
momentum equals to that of an electron in the valence band
plus that of an incident photon.
• Photons have little momentum relative of their energy as
they travel at the speed of light.
• The electron therefore makes almost vertical transition on
the E-K diagram.
 INDIRECT BAND GAP
• The conduction and valence band are not vertically aligned
in a indirect band gap semiconductor.
• Interaction of an incident photon with an electron in
valence band will not provide the correct energy and
momentum corresponding to that of an empty state in
conduction band.
• Photon absorption requires the help of another particle
namely a phonon.
• Phonon is a particle associated with lattice vibrations and
relatively a slow velocity equal to the speed of sound and a
small energy and large momentum compared to that of a
photon.
• Conservation of both energy and momentum can therefore
be obtained in the absorption process if a phonon is created
or an exsisting phonon participates.
• The minimum photon energy that can be absorbed is slightly
below the band gap energy in case of phonon absorption
and has to be slightly above the band gap energy in case of
phonon emission.
• The probability of having an interaction to take place
involving all three particles(photon phonon and electron)
will be lower than a simple electron- photon interaction.
• Absorption and emission is much stronger in a direct band
gap material and semiconductor laser diodes are made
from direct band gap materials.
 Absorption-Direct Band Gap

Change in momentum
Absorption in Semiconductors
 The process of photon absorption results in the transition of an
electron from a lower energy state to a higher energy state.

 If a photon with energy larger than the band gap energy is

absorbed in a semiconductor, the electron and hole are
generally not created with the same energy.

 Usually, the electron with its lower mass in compound

semiconductors is created with a larger energy than the hole.
 Indirect Intrinsic Transitions

Change in momentum
Indirect Intrinsic Transitions

Conservation of momentum
Temperature dependence of the absorption
coefficient
Exciton Absorption
 In very pure semiconductors, the electrons and holes produced
by the absorption of a photon of near –bandgap energy, pair to
form an exciton. This is the free exciton.

 In indirect bandgap semiconductors, exciton may also be formed

with the absorption or emission of a phonon.
Donor-Acceptor and Impurity band Absorption
 Both donors and acceptors are simultaneously present in a
semiconductor.
 Depending on the temperature and the state of occupancy of
the impurity levels , it is possible to raise an electron from the
acceptor to the donor level or by absorbing a photon.
Donor-Acceptor and Impurity band Absorption
 The energy of the photon absorbed is

 The term accounts for coulomb interaction between

the donor and acceptor atoms , which results in the lowering of
the binding energies.
 For the ground state of the impurities, the energies ED and EA
correspond to the most distant pairs and r is very high
 So
Donor-Acceptor and Impurity band Absorption
 For fully ionized impurities, such as for the nearest neighbors,
the excited states may lie within the respective band, so r may
be less , so

 Lowest energy transitions For most distant pairs(r is high)

 Higher energy transitions For nearer pairs.
High Energy Transitions
 High energy (near bandgap ) transitions can occur between
ionized impurity levels and the opposite band edge.

 The photon energy absorbed is h  Eg  Eb

 Where Eb is the binding energy of the donor or acceptor level.
Low Energy Absorption-Impurity-band transitions
 For high energy impurity-band transitions, the impurity levels
are ionized and can have energies close to the bandgap.
 For low energy absorption process the energy of the photon
must be at least equal to the ionization energy of the impurity.
 Interband transition
• Interband transition is the transition between the quantized levels within
the conduction or valence band (electrons and holes).
• It known also as the inter sub band transition.

• In a semiconductor at low frequencies, the principal electronic

conduction mechanism is associated with free carriers.

• As the photon energy increases and becomes comparable to the energy

gap, a new conduction process occur.

• A photon can excite an electron from an occupied state in the valence band
to an unoccupied state in the conduction band.

• In this process the photon is absorbed, an excited electronic state is formed

and a hole is left behind..
 Intraband transitions
• There are intraband processes which correspond to the electronic
conduction by free carriers, and hence are more important in
conducting materials such as metals, semimetals and degenerate
semiconductors.
• At zone centre, the valance band structure of most
semiconductors consist of Light hole, heavy hole and split off
bands. The three subbands are separated by spin orbit
interaction.
In P type semiconductor, the VB is filled with holes, & the
occupancy of different bands depends on doping & position of
fermi level.

Absorbtion of photon with right energy,results in transition

from LH to HH, SO to HH, SO to LH bands, depends on doping
and temperature. These are not observed in N type SC.
 Optical Absorption
• Absorption coefficient α is defined by
• I(x) = Io exp {-αx}

• where
• I(x) is the flux density if incident light is Io,
• x is the distance measured from the incident
surface.
•
 Absorption Spectrum Change under Applied
Electric Field
 Franz-Keldysh Effect
– Neglect Coulomb interaction between electrons and holes. Change in
absorption in the presence of a strong electric field.
 DC Stark Effect
– Franz-Keldysh effect plus Coulomb interaction between electrons and
holes (excitons). Change in atomic energy on application of electric
field.

 Quantum confined Start effect (QCSE)

– DC Stark Effect in quantum wells
– Excitons been confined in quantum well.
– Stark effect enhanced.
 Optical transitions in quantum confined systems
Photon absorption or emission involves electronic transitions which depend on
the density of states. In turn density of states depend on the physical structure
of the absorbing layer if it is thick (>10-15nm), or thin.
In terms of thin, we need to know if it comprise of quantum wells, multiple
quantum wells, quantum wires, and quantum dots.
Absorbing or emitting layer is made of direct gap or indirect gap
semiconductors.
•Upward transitions involve photon absorption. These transitions are with and
without phonons. In indirect semiconductors, phonon participation is essential to
conserve momentum.
•Downward transitions result in photon emission.

Transitions involve valence band-to-conduction band, band to impurity band or

levels, donor-to-acceptor, and intra-band.

Band-to-band transitions could involve free carriers or excitonic transitions.

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 Exciton Transitions, Optical Modulators and Nanowire/Nanotube

We cover basics of exciton formation in quantum wells and related changes in the
absorption coefficient and index of refraction. This phenomena is called confined
Stark effect.
Photon energy needed to create an exciton is given by
h = Eg + (Ee1 + Ehh1) - Eex
(Bulk Band gap) (Zero field energy of (Binding energy
Electron and holes) of exciton)

If the photon energy is greater than above

Ee1

Eg equation, free electron and hole pair is created.

Ehh1

Fig. 1(a) E = 0

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 Application of perpendicular Electric Field
When a perpendicular electric field is applied, the potential well tilts. Its slope is
related to the electric field.
Electron wave
function

Hole wave function

Fig. 1(b) Quantum well in the presence of E

•As E increases Ee & Eh decreases.

As a result photon energy at which absorption peak occurs shifts to
lower values (Red shift) .

•The interaction between electron and hole wavefunctions (and thus, the value of
the optical matrix elements and absorption coefficeint) also is reduced as
magnitude E is increased. This is due to the fact that electron, hole wave
functions are displaced with respect to each other. Therefore, the magnitude of
absorption coefficient decreases with increasing electronic filed E.
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