2019

SUMMER INTERNSHIP

SONALI TIRKEY
B.I.T SINDRI
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ELECTRICALENGINEERING
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Any attempt at any level can't be satisfactorily completed without the

support and guidance of MY teachers. I would like to express my immense
gratitude to

for their constant support and motivation that has encouraged me to come
up with this project. They had been very kind and patient while suggesting
me the outlines of this project and correcting my doubts. I thank their
overall support. I am very thankful to my teachers who have rendered their
whole hearted support at all times for the successful completion of the
vocational Training on Ranchi 400/220KV Sub-Station.

-By
SONALI TIRKEY

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CONTENT
SL.NO. TOPIC PAGE

1. SECTION 1 (ABOUTSUBSTATION) 5 - 16

I. INTRODUCTION(What is an electrical substation?)

II. Why do we need substation?
III. About PGCILRanchi 400/220 KvSubstation
IV. Single line diagram of substation.
V. Classification of substation.
VI. Substation Location
VII. Substation Design

2. SECTION 2 (400/220 RANCHISUBSTATION) 17 - 46

I. Description
II. Classification
 Main Equipment used in asubstation(switch
yard)
 control room
 auxiliary system
III. Main Equipment
 Power Transformer (ICT)
 Current Transformer
 Capacitor Voltage Transformer
 Busbar
 Circuit Breaker
 SF6Circuit Breaker
 Isolator
 Relay
 Wave Trap
 Lightening Arrester
 Neutral Ground Reactor
 Fixed Series Compensation
 Shunt Capacitor Bank
IV. Control Room
 PLCC
 Power System Automation

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 V. Auxiliary System

3. SECTION 3 (FAULT & SUBSTATIONPROTECTION) 47 - 63

I. Fault
 Types of fault
 Cause of fault
 Effect of fault
II. Substation Protection
 Introduction
 Why do we need protection?
 Basic protection requirement
 Protection device
III. Relay
 What isrelay?
 Types of relay
IV. Name of equipment tobe protected
V. Transformer protection
VI. Reactor protection
VII. Busbar protection
VIII. Feeder protection

4. SECTION 4 (TRANSMISSIONLINE) 63 - 81

I. Introduction
 Overhead transmission line
 Underground transmission line
II. Main component of overhead transmissionline
III. Conductor
IV. Supporter/tower
V. Insulator
VI. Corona
VII. Static VARCompensator(SVC)

5. CONCLUSION 82

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY 83

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SECTION 1(ABOUTSUBSTATION)

What is a Substation?

A substation is an electrical system with high-voltage capacity and can be used to control
the apparatus, generators, electrical circuits, etc. The Substations are mainly used to
convert AC (alternating current) to DC (direct current). Some types of substations are tiny
in size with an inbuilt transformer as well as related switches. Other types of substations
are very huge with different types of transformers, equipment, circuit breakers,and
switches.

Types of Sub Stations

The different types of substations mainly include Step-up Type Substation, Step-down
Transformer, Distribution, Underground Distribution, Switchyard, Customer
Substation, and System Station.

Step-up Type Substation

This type of substation gets the power supply from a near producing facility. It uses a
large power transformer for enhancing the voltage level for transmitting to the
remote locations. In is substation, the power transmission can be done by using a
transmission bus to transmission lines. This substation can also be a knock on the
incoming power which is received by the generation plant. The received power can be

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used to supply power to the operation of apparatus in the plant. A substation includes
circuit breakers for switch generation as well as transmission circuits in & out of service
as required.

Customer Substation
This type of substation works as the major source of power supply for one specific
business client. The business case, as well as the requirements of technical, highly
depends on necessities of customers.

System Stations
This substation includes the huge amount of power transfer across the station and it is
called as a system station. These stations only offer no power transformers while others
do voltage exchange as well. Typically, these stations supply the end-points to the
transmission lines creating from switchyards & supply the electrical energy for
circuits that supply transformer stations. They are important to long-term
consistency. These stations are strategic services as well as very costly to build as well
as to maintain.

Distribution Type Substation

Distribution type substations are placed where the main voltage distributions are stepped-
down to supply voltages to the consumers using a distribution network. The voltage of
any two phases will be 400 volts, and the voltage between neutral and any phase will be
230 volts.

Step-down Type Substation

This type of substation is placed at different points in an electrical network. They can
connect different parts of the network and that are a source of sub-transmission or
distribution lines. This type of substation can change the transmission voltage to a sub-
transmission voltage . The converted voltage lines can provide a source for distribution
substations. In some cases, power is tapped from the line of -transmission line to utilize

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in an industrial capacity along the way. Or else, the power will supply to a distribution
substation.

Underground Distribution Substation

Installation of a substation in urban centers requires large space, but generally, they don’t
have a place to install the substation. To overcome this problem, installing the substation
underground decreases requirement of space and the surface area can also be used for
other constructions like buildings, shopping malls, etc. The main concept of the
underground substation is to offer the best conventional substation by reducing the space
occupied above land.

Switchyard
The switchyard is the mediator among the transmission as well as generation, and equal
voltage can be maintained in the switchyard. The main purpose of this is to supply the
generated energy from the power plant at the particular level of voltage to the nearby
transmission line or power grid.

11kv Substation
The main purpose of the 11kv substation is to gather the energy which is transmitted at
high- voltage from the producing station, then lessens the voltage to a suitable value for
local distribution & provides amenities for switching. This substation includes isolator,
lightning arrester, step-down transformer, CT metering, circuit breaker, and
capacitor bank.

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220 kV Substation
Here, the 220 kVA substation is the power-capability utilized by the step-down
transformer in the substation, and it illustrates the highest apparent power a step-down
transformer can provide. The received voltage level of this substation will be 220 kV.

132 kV Substation
The 132 kV is the rating of the step-down transformer, which has a 132kV primary voltage.
Generally, these transformers are employed in transmission type substations where the
voltage has to be stepped-down to additional distribution.

132 kV Substation
Similarly, some of the substations are classified based on the nature of duties, service
rendered, operating voltage, by importance and design.

 The nature of duties based substations are step-up, primary grid substation,
step-down.
 The service rendered based substations are service rendered which includes a
transformer, switching and converting substations.
 The operating voltage based substations are high voltage, extra high voltage,
and ultra-high voltage substations.
 The importance based substations are grid and town substations.
 The design based substations are indoor, outdoor, foundation mounted and
pole mounted substations.

Why We Need Electrical PowerSubstations

We build substations for the following reasons:-

To satisfy load growth

When people or businesses move to a new location that has little to no power
supply infrastructure , it might make a case for building a substation close to

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the community . Supplying this new load from distant substations is inefficient
because a little amount of power will be lost as heat on the distribution lines.

To accommodate new generation

Say you want to build a wind farm or a solar farm. You will need a collector
substation to tie all the generators and connect them to the power grid.

To maintain reliability requirements

At times new transmission lines are constructed by developers or public

utilities to address any deficiency in the reliability of the power grid. This
deficiency occurs when you are operating the T-line at its thermal capacity.
Therefore when building new transmission lines, effort is made to connect
it to an existing substation. When that is not possible, a new substation is
built.

Technical Considerations

To step up or step down ACvoltage using transformer(s)

Remember higher voltages mean lower currents. Lower currents yield to

lower I^2R (copper) losses. Thus more energy can be delivered to do
useful work. Voltages at the distribution end need to be stepped down for
utilization by customers.
Substations provide the necessary real-estate to install a transformer for
power transmission and distribution.

To break the power flow

Quite often a fault (such as a tree touching a live wire) requires complete
isolation of the line until the fault is removed. Breaking the power flow by
merely placing some switches on the line will not work. To safely interrupt
thousands of amperes you will need circuit breakers that can handle such
high current magnitudes. Almost all substations contain circuit breakers in
some form that trip and isolate transmission lines connected to it.

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Provide support to the power flow

Unlike DC power flow, AC power flow needs to overcome not only the
resistive impedance but also the impedance offered by the inductive nature
of various equipment (like motor loads, transmission lines ,reactors
etc.) connected to the system. For this reason , substations have capacitor
banks connected to all the three phases of the lines to ease the power flow
. Doing so also improves the power factor of the electrical system.

There are several other reasons for building a substation . However, the
ones listed above are the important ones.

Section-II 400/220 kV RANCHI SUB-STATION

(Under Kahalgaon Stage-II, Phase-I & Phase-II)

Description :- Ranchi Substation is an automated substation, control and

protection of all bays has been implemented using worldwide IEC-61850
automation protocol . Ranchi substation may be divided into two parts 400 KV
ACswitchyard and 220 KVACswitchyard . The scheme used 400 kV AC
switchyards is one and half breaker scheme while in 220 KVACswitchyard is
double main and transfer bus bar scheme. The lines that terminate into 400 Kv
ACswitchyard are Ranchi-Maithan D/C, Ranchi-Maithon RB, Ranchi-Sipat D/C
and Ranchi-Rourkela D/C Lines where D/C denote double circuit.
02 os of 315 MVA Transformers are installed at Ranchi substation. 02 nos.80
MVAR Shunt reactors along with NGRare connected with each 400 kV Sipat

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lines. 01 no 80 MVAR shunt reactor is connected to the bus. There are two sets of
(3*132) MVAR FSCinstalled in Ranchi Sipat Lines because this is very long line of
length 404 km.

*Area:
52.3 Acres (51.1 acres Private land & 1.18 acres govt. land)

* Location
16 Kms. From Ranchi Airport,
15 Kms. From Rly. Stn,
1.5kms off NH-33(Ranchi-Jamshedpur Highway).

Location of a substation :- Selection of the location of a substation must

consider many factors. Sufficient land area is required for installation of
equipment with necessary clearances for electrical safety, and for access to
maintain large apparatus such as transformers. Where land is costly, such as in
urban areas, gas insulated switchgear may save money overall. The site must have
room for expansion due to load growth or planned transmission additions.

Environmental effects of the substation must be considered, such as drainage,

noise and road traffic effects. A grounding (earthling) system must be designed,
and ground potential rise must be calculated to protect passers-by during a short-
circuit in the transmission system. The substation site must be reasonably central
to the distribution area to be served

Design :- The main issues facing a power engineer are reliability and cost. A
good design attempts to strike a balance between these two, to achieve sufficient
reliability without excessive cost. The design should also allow expansion of the
station, when required.
The following factors are considered while making site selection for a substation:-

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Type of substation :- The category of substation is important for its location.
For example a step up substation, which is generally a point where power from
various sources is pooled and stepped up for long transmission, should be located
as close to the generating stations as possible tominimize the transmission losses.
Availability of suitable and sufficient land :- The land proposed for a
substation should be normally level and open from all sides. It should be water
logged particularly in rainyseason.

According to the latest practice the land required for various types of substation
is given below:-

TYPESOFSUBSTATION AREAREQUIRED
400 KV Substation 50 acres
200 KV Substation 25 acres
132 KVSubstation 10 acres

*Equipment Details
Sl.No. Name of Equipment Manufacturer
1 315 MVA ICT BHEL/CGL
2 80 MVAR Busreactor BHEL
3 80 mvar Line reactor BHEL
4 FSC(3*132MVAR0 ABB
5 Circuit BREAKER CGL/AREVA
6 Current Transformer CGL/AREVA
7 Capacitive Voltage Transformer CGL/AREVA
8 Lightening Arrester CGL
9 Isolator CGL
10 Wave Trap BPL

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Single Line Diagram (SLD)
The single line diagram (SLD) is the most basic of the set of diagrams that
are used to document the electrical functionality of the substation. Its
emphasis is on communicating the functions of the power equipment and
the associated protection and control system.

Classification ofSubstations
The substation is the medium of transferring the power from generating unit to the
consumer end . It consists different types of equipment like transformer, generator,
power cable which helps in the power transmission . The generation, transmission
and distribution are the main work of the substation .

The substation which generates the power is known as the generating

substation. Similarly, the transmission substation transmits the power,
and the distributing substations distribute the power to the load. The
subcategories of the electrical substations are explained below.

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Classifications of Substations
The substations may be classified in numerous ways, such as by nature of
duties, service rendered operating voltage, importance, and design.

Classification of Substations by Nature of Duties

The classification of the substation by nature of functions is explained
below in details.

Step-up or Primary Substations :- Such types of substations generate

low voltage like 3.3, 6.6, 11, or 33kV. This voltage is stepped up by the
help of a step-up transformer for transmitting the power over large
distances. It is located near the generating substation.

Primary Grid Substations : – This substation lowered the value of

primary stepped up voltages. The output of the primary grid substation
acts as the input of the secondary substations. The secondary substation
is used for stepping down the input voltage to more lowered for further
transmission.

Step-down or Distribution Substations :– This substation is placed

near the load centre where the primary distribution is stepped down for
sub-transmission. The secondary distribution transformer feeds the
consumer through the service line.

Classification of Substations by Service Rendered

Transformer substations :– In such type of substation transformers
are installed for transforming the power from one voltage level to another
level as per need.

Switching Substations : – The substations use for switching the power

line without disturbing the voltage is known as the switching substations.
This type of substations is placed between the transmission line.

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Converting Substations :– In such types of substations, AC power
converting into DC power or vice versa or it can convert high frequency to
lower frequency or vice versa.

Classification of Substations by Operating Voltage

The substations, according to operating voltage, may be categorised as

High Voltage Substations (HV Substations) :– Involving voltages

between 11 KV and 66 KV.

Extra High Voltage Substations :– Involving voltages between 132 kV

and 400 KV.

Ultra High Voltage :– Operating voltage above 400 KV.

Classifications of Substation byImportance

Grid Substations : – This substation is used for transferring the bulk
power from one point to another. If any fault occurs on the substation,
then the continuity of whole of the supply is affected by it.

Town Substations :– These substations step down the voltage at

33/11 kV for more distribution in the towns. If there is any fault occurs
in this substation, then the supply of the whole town is blocked.

Classification of Substations byDesign

Indoor Type Substations :– In such type of substations, the apparatus
is installed within the substation building. Such type of substations is
usually for the voltage up to 11 KV but can be raised for the 33 KV or

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66 KV when the surrounding air is polluted by dust, fumes or gasses,
etc.

Outdoor Substations : – These substations are further subdivided into

two categories

Pole Mounted Substations :– Such Substations are erected for

distributions of power in the localities. Single stout pole or H-pole and 4-
pole structures with relevant platforms are operating for transformers of
capacity up to 25 KVA, 125 KVA, and above 125KVA.

Foundation Mounted Substations :– Such types of substations are

used for mounting the transformers having capacity 33,000 volts or
above.

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SECTION-II 400/220 KV RANCHI SUB-
STATION
Description
Ranchi substation is an automated substation, control and protection of all
bays has been implemented using worldwide ICE-61850 automation protocol.
Ranchi substation may be divided into two parts 400 KV AC switchyard and 220 KV
AC switchyard. The scheme used 400 KV AC switchyard is one and half breaker
scheme. The lines that terminate into 400 KV AC switchyard are

-Ranchi -Maithan D/C, Ranchi-

maithan RB ,Ranchi -sipat D/C and
Ranchi- rourkela D/C lines where
D/C denote double circuit.

02 no. of 315 MVA Transformers are

installed at Ranchi substation. 02
nos. 80 MVAR Shunt reactors along
with NGR are connected with each
400 KV sipat lines . 01 no 80 MVAR
Shunt reactor is connected to the
bus . There are two sets of ( 3*132 )
MVAR FSC Installed in Ranchi sipat
lines because this is very long line of
length 404 km.

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Classification

Ranchi substation may be divided into following parts:-

1. Main equipment used in a substation ( switch yard)

2. Control Room
3. Auxiliary system

Main equipment used in a substation (switch yard )

A substation is an assembly of various electrical equipment connected to
step down electric power at higher voltages and to clear fault in the system
. The various electrical equipment used in the substation areas follows:-

 switch yard :- The 400 KVACswitchyard may be divided into 36 bays of

which 3 bays comprises 1 dia means there are 12 dias . 01 bay should have
minimum 01 circuit breaker, 01 current transformer and 02 isolators. Two
sides of a dia should be connected to lines or one side line one side
transformer or one side line one side reactor. There are two 400 KVbuses
.The 220 KVACswitchyard may be divided into 12 bays . Sixteen 400 KV
bays and eight 220 KV bays are undermaintenance.
This is the costliest equipment of substation . ICT (INTER CONNECTED
TRANSFORMER)

1. Power transformers ( ICT)

2. Current transformer

3. Capacitor voltage transformer

4. Busbar

5. Isolator

6. Relay

7. Circuit breakers

8. Lighting arrestor

9. Wave trap

10. Shunt Reactor

11. Sf6 circuit breaker

12. FSC( fixed series compensation )

13. NGR(neutral groundreactor

14. Capacitor bank.

• Power transformer ( ICT):-

TRANSFORMER is used to step down the EHV transmission voltage (400 kv ) to
transmission voltage (220 kv ). Normally 315 MVA auto transformers are being
used .the secondary winding provides 220 kv voltages and other 33 kvvoltage
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(tertiary winding ). Usually tertiary winding is connected in closed delta formation
and can be used fir auxiliary station supply purpose . in practices , it is preferred
to installed three phase ICTas far as possible however in case of hilly terrain ,
where due to transportation limitations ,three single phase units are installed .

ATransformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to

another circuit through inductively coupled inductors the transformers coils. A
varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in
the transformers core , and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary
winding .

With transformers, however, the high cost of repair or replacement, and the
possibilities of violent failure or fire involving g adjacent equipment, may limiting
the danger a major objective. The protection aspects of relays should be
considered carefully when protecting transformers.

Faults internals to the transformers quits often involved a few turns. While the
currents in the shorted turns are large in magnitude. the changes of the currents
at the terminals of the transformer are low compared to the rating of the
Transformer.

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Current Transformer(CT)
Definition: A current transformer is a device that is used for the transformation of
current from a higher value into a proportionate current to a lower value. It transforms
the high voltage current into the low voltage current due to which the heavy current
flows through the transmission lines is safely monitored by the ammeter.

The current transformer is used with the AC instrument, meters or control

apparatus where the current to be measured is of such magnitude that the
meter or instrument coil cannot conveniently be made of sufficient current
carrying capacity. The current transformer is shown in the figure below

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 The ratio of the primary
current and the secondary current is known as a current transformer ratio of the circuit.
The current ratio of the transformer is usually high. The secondary current ratings are of
the order of 5A, 1A and 0.1A. The current primary ratings vary from 10A to 3000A or
more. The symbolic representation of the current transformer is shown in the figure
below.

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 where, Is – secondary current

Es– secondary induced voltage

Ip -primary current

Ep – primary induced voltage

Kt – turn ratio, number of secondary turn/number of primary turn

I0 – excitation current

Im – magnetizing current

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Iw – working component

Φs – main flux

The secondary current lags behinds the secondary induced voltage by an angle θº.
The secondary current relocates to the primary side by reversing the secondary
current and multiply by the turn ratio. The current flows through the primary is
the sum of the exciting current I0 and the product of the turn ratio and secondary
current Kt Is.

Ratio and PhaseAngle Errors of CT

The current transformer has two errors – ratio errorand a phase angle error.

Current Ratio Errors – The current transformer is mainly due to theenergy

component of excitation currentand is given as

Where Ip is the primary current. Kt is the turn ratio and is the secondary current.

Phase Angle Error – In an ideal current transformer the vector angle between the
primary and reversed secondary current is zero. But in an actual current
transformer, there is a phase difference between the primary and the secondary
current because the primary current has also supplied the component of exciting
current. Thus, the difference between the two phases is termed as a phase angle
error.

Types of current Transformer

The current transformer is mainly classified into three types, i.e., wound current
transformer, toroidal current transformer and bar-type transformers.

1. Wound Transformer – In this transformer the primary winding is composed

inside the transformer. The primary winding had a single turn and connected in
series with the conductor that measured the current. The wound transformer is
mainly used for measuring the current from 1amps to 100 amps.

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2.Bar-type Current Transformer – The bar type transformer has only
secondary windings. The conductor on which the transformer is mounted
will act as primary windings of the current transformers.

3.Toroidal Current Transformer – This transformer does not contain primary

windings. The line through which the current flow in the network is attached
through a hole or a window of the transformers. The major advantage of
this transformer is that the transformer has a symmetrical shape due to
which it has a low leakage flux, thus less electromagnetic interference.

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CVT
A capacitor voltage transformer (CVT), is a transformer used in power systems to
step down extra high voltage signals and provide a low voltage signal, for measurement
or to operate a protective relay. CVTs are typically single-phase devices used for
measuring voltages in excess of one hundred kilovolts where the use of wound primary
voltage transformers would be uneconomical.

Electrical Bus-Bar and itsTypes

Definition: An electrical bus bar is defined as a conductor or a group of conductor
used for collecting electric power from the incoming feeders and distributes them
to the outgoing feeders. In other words, it is a type of electrical junction in which

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all the incoming and outgoing electrical current meets. Thus, the electrical bus bar
collects the electric power at one location. The bus bar system consists the
isolator and the circuit breaker. On the occurrence of a fault, the circuit breaker is
tripped off and the faulty section of the busbar is easily disconnected from the
circuit.

The electrical bus bar is available in rectangular, cross-sectional, round andmany

other shapes. The rectangular bus bar is mostly used in the power system. The
Copper and Aluminium are used for the manufacturing of the electrical bus bar.

bars are 40×4mm (160mm2);

40×5 mm (200 mm2) ; 50×6 mm (300mm2) ; 60×8 mm (480 mm2) ; 80×8 (640
mm2) and 100×10 mm (1000mm2).

The various types of busbar arrangement are used in the power system. The
selection of the bus bar is depended on the different factor likes reliability,
flexibility, cost etc. The following are the electrical considerations governingthe
selection of any one particular arrangement.

• The bus bar arrangement is simple and easy in maintenance.

• The maintenance of the system did not affect their continuity.

• The installation of the bus bar ischeap.

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The small substation where continuity of the supply is not essential uses the
single bus bar. But in a large substation, the additional busbar is used in the The
most common of the bus-

system so that the interruption does not occur in their supply. The different type
of electrical busbar arrangement is shown in the figure below.

Single Bus-Bar Arrangement

The arrangement of such type of system is very simple and easy. The systemhas
only one bus bar along with the switch. All the substation equipment like the
transformer, generator, the feeder is connected to this bus bar only. The
advantages of single bus bar arrangementsare

• It has low initial cost.

• It requires lessmaintenance

• It is simple in operation

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Drawbacks of Single Bus-Bars Arrangement

•The only disadvantage of such type of arrangement is that the complete

supply is disturbed on the occurrence of the fault.

•The arrangement provides the less flexibility and hence used in thesmall
substation where continuity of supply is not essential.

CircuitBreaker
A circuit breaker is a switching device that interrupts the abnormal or fault
current. It is a mechanical device that disturbs the flow of high magnitude (fault)
current and in additions performs the function of a switch. The circuit breaker is
mainly designed for closing or opening of an electrical circuit, thus protects the
electrical system from damage. Working Principle of Circuit Breaker

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Circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts. These contacts
are touching each other and carrying the current under normal conditions when
the circuit is closed. When the circuit breaker is closed, the current carrying
contacts, called the electrodes, engaged each other under the pressure of a
spring.

During the normal operating condition, the arms of the circuit breaker can be
opened or closed for a switching and maintenance of the system. To open the
circuit breaker, only a pressure is required to be applied to a trigger.

SulphurHexafluoride(SF6)CircuitBreaker
A circuit breaker in which SF6under pressure gas Whenever a fault occurs on any
part of the system, the trip coil of the breaker gets energized and the moving
contacts are getting apart from each other by some mechanism, thus opening the
circuit.

Types of Circuit Breaker

Circuit breakers are mainly classified on the basis of rated voltages. Circuit
breakers below rated voltage of 1000V are known as the low voltage circuit
breakers and above 1000V are called the high voltage circuitbreakers.

The most general way of the classification of the circuit breaker is on the basis of
the medium of arc extinction. Such types of circuit breakers are as follows :-

1. Oil Circuit Breaker

o Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker

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o Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker

2. Minimum Circuit Breaker

3. Air Blast Circuit Breaker

4. Sulphur Hexafluoride Circuit Breaker

5. Vacuum Circuit Breaker

6. Air Break Circuit Breaker

All high-voltage circuit breakers may be classified under two main categories i.e
oil circuit breakers and oil-less circuit breaker. is used to extinguish the arc is
called SF6circuit breaker. SF6(Sulphur hexafluoride) gas has excellent dielectric,
arc quenching, chemical and other physical properties which have proved its
superiority over other arc quenching mediums such as oil or air. The SF6circuit
breaker is mainly divided into three types • Non-puffer piston circuit breaker

• Single- puffer piston circuitbreaker.

• Double-puffer piston circuit breaker.

The circuit breaker which used air and oil as an insulating medium, their arc
extinguishing force builds up was relatively slow after the movement of contact
separation. In the case of high voltage circuit breakers quick arc extinction
properties are used which require less time for quick recovery, voltage builds up.
SF6circuit breakers have good properties in this regard compared to oil or air
circuit breakers. So in high voltage up to 760 kV, SF6circuit breakers isused.

Properties of Sulphur hexafluoride Circuit Breaker

Sulphur hexafluoride possesses very good insulating and arc quenching

properties. These properties are

• It is colourless, odourless, non-toxic, and non-inflammable gas.

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• SF6 gas is extremely stable and inert, and its density is five times that
of air.

•It has high thermal conductivity better than that of air and assists in
better cooling current carrying parts.

• SF6 gas is strongly electronegative, which means the free electrons

are easily removed from discharge by the formation of negative ions.

•It has a unique property of fast recombination after the source energizing
spark is removed. It is 100 times more effective as compared to arc
quenching medium.

•Its dielectric strength is 2.5 times than that of air and 30% less than that
of the dielectric oil. At high pressure the dielectric strength of the gas
increases.

• Moisture is very harmful to SF6 circuit breaker. Due to a combination

of humidity and SF6 gas, hydrogen fluoride is formed (when the arc is
interrupted) which can attack the parts of the circuit breakers.

Construction of SF6Circuit Breakers

SF6 circuit breakers mainly consist of two parts, namely (a) the interrupter
unit and (b) the gas system.

Interrupter Unit – This unit consists of moving and fixed contacts comprising a set of
current-carrying parts and an arcing probe. It is connected to the SF6gas reservoir. This
unit consists slide vents in the moving contacts which permit the high-pressure gas into
the main tank.

Page | 15
Page | 16
Gas System – The closed circuit gas system is employed in SF6circuit breakers.
The SF6gas is costly, so it is reclaimed after each operation. This unit consists low
and high-pressure chambers with a low-pressure alarm along with warning
switches. When the pressure of the gas is very low due to which the dielectric
strength of gases decrease and an arc quenching ability of the breakers is
endangered, then this system gives the warning alarm.

Working Principle of SF6 Circuit Breaker

In the normal operating conditions, the contacts of the breaker are closed. When the
fault occurs in the system, the contacts are pulled apart, and an arc is struck between
them. The displacement of the moving contacts is synchronized with the valve which
enters the high-pressure SF6 gas in the arc interrupting chamber at a pressure of about
16kg/cm^2.

The SF6 gas absorbs the free electrons in the arc path and forms ions which do not act
as a charge carrier. These ions increase the dielectric strength of the gas and hence the
arc is extinguished. This process reduces the pressure of the SF6 gas up to 3kg/cm^2
thus; it is stored in the low-pressure reservoir. This low-pressure gas is pulled back to
the high-pressure reservoir for re-use.

Now a day puffer piston pressure is used for generating arc quenching pressure during
an opening operation by mean of a piston attached to the moving contacts.

Advantage of SF6 circuit breaker

SF6 circuit breakers have the following advantages over conventional breaker
1.SF6 gas has excellent insulating, arc extinguishing and many other properties
which are the greatest advantages of SF6 circuit breakers.
2.The gas is non-inflammable and chemically stable. Their decomposition products
are non-explosive and hence there is no risk of fire or explosion.
3. Electric clearance is very much reduced because of the high dielectric strength of
SF6.
4. Its performance is not affected due to variations in atmospheric condition.
5. It gives noiseless operation, and there is no over voltage problem because the
arc is extinguished at natural current zero.
6. There is no reduction in dielectric strengthbecause no carbon particles are
formed during arcing.
7. It requires less maintenance and no costly compressed air system is required.
8. SF6 performs various duties like clearing short-line faults, switching, opening
unloaded transmission lines, and transformer reactor, etc. without any problem.

Page | 17
Disadvantages of SF6 circuit breakers
1.SF6 gas is suffocating to some extent. In the case of leakage in the breaker tank, the
SF6 gas being heavier than air and hence SF6 are settled in the surroundings and lead
to the suffocation of the operating personnel.
2.The entrance of moisture in the SF6 breaker tank is very harmful to the breaker, and
it causes several failures.
3.The internal parts need cleaning during periodic maintenance under clean and dry
environment.
4.The special facility requires for transportation and maintenance of quality of gas.

ISOLATOR
This type of construction has three insulator stacks per pole. The twoone each
side is fixed and one at the center is rotating type. The central insulator stack can
swing about its vertical axis through about 900C. The fixed contacts are provided
on the top of each of the insulator stacks on the side. The contact bar is fixed
horizontally on the central insulator stack. In closed position, the contact shaft
connects the two fixed contacts. While opening, the central stack rotates through
900C, an
contact shaft swings horizontaly giving adouble. The isolators are mounted ona
galvanized roled steel frame. The three poles are interlocked by means of steel
shaft. A common operating mechanism is provided foral the three poles. One
pole\ of a triplepole isolator is closed position.
This type of construction has three insulator stacks per pole. The two one each
side is fixed and one at the center is rotating type. The central insulator stack can
swing about its vertical axis through about 900C. The fixed contacts are provided
on the top of each of the insulator stacks on the side. The contact bar is fixed
horizontally on the central insulator stack. In closed position, th contact shaft
connects the two fixed contacts. While opening, the central stack rotates through
900C,

Page | 18
Pantograph isolator:
illustrates the construction of a typical pantograph isolator. While closing, the
linkages of pantograph are brought nearer by rotating the insulator column. In
closed position the upper two arms of the pantograph close on the overhead
station bus bar giving agrip.
The current is carried by the upper bus bar to the lower bus bar through the
conducting arms of the pantograph. While opening, the rotating insulator column
is rotated about its axis. Thereby the pantograph blades break. col apse in vertical
plane and vertical isolation is obtained between the line terminal a
pantograph upper terminal. Pantograph isolators cover less floor area. Each pole
can be located at a suitable point andthe
three poles need not be in one line, can be located in a line at desired angle with
the bus axis.
Isolator with earth switches(ES):
The instrument current transformer (CT) steps down the current of a circuit to a
lower value and is used in the same types of equipmentas a potential
transformer. This is done by constructing the
secondary coil consisting of many turns of wire, around the primary coil,

Page | 19
which contains only a few turns of wire. In this manner, measurements of high
values of current can be obtained. A current transformer should always be short-
circuited when not connected to an external load. Because the magnetic circuit of
a current transformer is designed for low magnetizing current when under load,
this large increase in magnetizing current will build up a large flux in the magnetic
circuit and cause the transformer to act as a step-up transformer, inducing an
excessively high voltage inthe secondary when under no load.
The main use of using the earth switch (E/S) is to ground the extra voltage which
may dangerous for any of the instrument in the substation.

15
Variable Shunt Reactors are Shunt Reactor
used in high voltage energy
transmission systems to
stabilize the voltage during
load variations. A traditional
shunt reactor has a fixed rating
and is either connected to the
power line all the time or
switched in and outdepending
on the load.
VSRsare today availablefor
voltages up to 550 kV. The
largest three-phase VSRsin
operation have a rating of 120-
200 Mvar at 420kV.
One primary reason for using
shunt reactors on transmission
lines is to control steady state
over voltage when energizing
the long HV lines or when
operating under light load
condition. If the shuntreactors
were not employed the
reactive power generated by
the capacitance can causehigh
voltage at the receiving end of
the line. The receivingend
Page | 20
 voltage of a 400 KV,1000 km
long transmission line may be
as high as 800KV. To restrict
insulation stresses caused by
over voltages following sudden
load rejection a substantial
part of the shunt reactive
compensation is usually left
permanently connected.

Main Component

1 Radiator bank

2 Conservator

3 Silica gel breather

4 H.V bushing in primary side

5 Neutral bushing in secondaryside.

Relay
Definition: The relay is the device that open or closes the contacts to cause the
operation of the other electric control. It detects the intolerable or undesirable
condition with an assigned area and gives the commands to the circuit breaker to
disconnect the affected area. Thus, protects the system from damage.

. Working Principle of Relay

It works on the principle of an electromagnetic attraction. When the circuit of the

relay senses the fault current, it energizes the electromagnetic field which
produces the temporary magneticfield

Page | 21
 This magnetic field moves the
relay armature for opening or closing the connections. The small power relay has
only one contacts, and the high power relay has two contacts for opening the
switch.

The inner section of the relay is shown in the figure below. It has an iron core
which is wound by a control coil. The power supply is given to the coil through the
contacts of the load and the control switch. The current flows through the coil
produces the magnetic field aroundit.

Due to this magnetic field, the upper arm of the magnet attracts the lower arm.
Hence close the circuit, which makes the current flow through the load. If the
contact is already closed, then itmoves oppositely and hence open the contacts.

Pole and Throw

The pole and throws are the configurations of the relay, where the pole is the
switch, and the throw is the number of connections. The single pole, the single
throw is the simplest type of relay which has only one switch and only one
possible connection. Similarly, the single pole double throw relay has a oneswitch
and two possibleconnections.

Construction of Relay

The relay operates both electrically and mechanically. It consistselectromagnetic

and sets of contacts which perform the operation of the switching. The

Page | 22
construction of relay is mainly classified into four groups. They are the contacts,
bearings, electromechanical design, terminations andhousing.

Contacts – The contacts are the most important part of the relay that affects the
reliability. The good contact gives limited contact resistance and reduced contact
wear. The selection of the contact material depends upon the several factors like
nature of the current to be interrupted, the magnitude of the current to be
interrupted, frequency and voltage of operation.

Bearing – The bearing may be a single ball, multi-ball, pivot-ball and jewel
bearing. The single ball bearing is used for high sensitivity and low friction.The
multi-ball bearing provides low friction and greater resistance to shock.

Electromechanical design – The electromechanical design includes the design of

the magnetic circuit and the mechanical attachment of core, yoke and armature.
The reluctance of the magnetic path is kept minimum for making the circuit more
efficient. The electromagnet is made up of soft iron, and the coil current is usually
restricted to 5Aand the coil voltage to 220V.

Terminations and Housing – The assembly of an armature with the magnet and
the base is made with the help of spring. The spring is insulated from the
armature by moulded blocks which provide dimensional stability. The fixed
contacts are usually spot welded on the terminal link.

Wave Trap Working Function & Purpose of Line Trap:

Wave trap is used to create high impedance to the carrier wave high frequency
communication entering in to unwanted destinations typically substation. Carrier wave
communication uses up to 150kHz to 800kHz frequency to send the all the
communication. These high frequency damages the power system components which
are designed to operate 50 or 60 Hz. Wave traps are also called as line traps. It consists
of an inductor coil which is connected in series with the high voltage power system.
Please refer the figure.

Construction of Wave trap circuits:

Page | 23
Wave trap circuit diagram

Wave trap circuit consists of three major componentssuch as..

 Main Coil
 Tuning Device
 Protective Device

Page | 24
Main coil:

Wave trap
Working principle

Main Coil is nothing but an outer part of the wave trap circuits and which is made from
standed aluminum cable. If the application of more than one layer is necessary,
separation between layers is required to provide a cooling duct between them to avoid
overheating. The cooling duct is created with spacer bars made out of epoxy resin and
fiberglass. The coil carries rated continuous power frequency currents, therefore this is
the power inductor in this system. It provides a low impedance path for the electricity flow.
The total current carrying capacity of the transmission systemwill be calculated, and the
trap coil are designed according to that. That’s why the coil become bigger size as you
can see in High voltage transmission.

Also Know About: What is The Rating of Icu Ics Icw Icm of Circuit breaker

Page | 25
When the frequency increases, the inductive reactance will get increases. That’s
why it creates high impedance for high frequency signal and low impedance for low
frequency signal. This unit prevents the high frequency carrier signal from entering
the power circuits.

CouplingCapacitor:

A coupling capacitor is used to receive high frequency communication signal. As

the capacitor principle of capacitor creates low impedance for high frequency

signal.

As the frequency increases, the impedance value decreases and the frequency
decreases the impedance increases.

Tuning Device of Wave Trap:

The next major component is the tuning device. This device is securely installed
inside the main coil. It adjusts blocking frequency or bandwidth, and consists of
coils, capacitors, and resistors. Tuning device is connected in parallel with main and
protective device. It provides blocking impedance over a specified frequency range.
It can be sing band tuned or multiple bands. The tuning circuit is enclosed in
weather proof enclosures filled with resin/foam to protecting from weather
conditions.

Protective Device:

The last main component is the protective device, which is parallel with the main
coil and the tuning device. Protective device ensures protection of tuning device
and main coil against surge voltages. Also It protects the main coil and the tuning
device by lowering the over-voltage levels. The bandwidth of a line trap is the
frequency range over which the line trap can provide a certain specified minimum
blocking impedance or resistance.

Page | 26
Line traps are connected in series with power line and thus their coils are rated to
carry the full line current. The impedance of a line trap is very low at the power
frequency and will not cause any significant voltagedrop.

Inside of Wave trap:

LightningArrester
Definition: The device which is used for the protection of the equipment at the
substations against travelling waves, such type of device is called lightning
arrester or surge diverter. In other words, lightning arrester diverts the abnormals
Page | 27
high voltage to the ground without affecting the continuity of supply. It is
connected between the line and earth, i.e., in parallel with the equipment to be
protected at the substation.

28

PLCC(Power Line Carrier Communication):

The following are the damages that are caused by the travelling wave on the
substation equipment.
1.The high peak or crest voltage of the surge may cause flash-over in the
internal winding thereby spoil thewinding insulation.
2.The steep wave fronts of the surges may cause external flashoverbetween the
terminal of thetransformer.
3.The highest peak voltage of the surge may cause external flashover, between
the terminal of the electrical equipment which may result in damage to the
insulator.
Working of LightningArrester

Page | 28
When a travelling wave reaches the arrestor, its sparks over at a certain prefixed
voltage as shown in the figure below. The arrestor provides a conducting path to
the waves of relatively low impedance between the line and the ground. The
surge impedance of the line restricts the amplitude of current flowing to ground.
The lightning arrester provides a path of low impedance only when the travelling
surge reaches the surge diverter, neither before it nor after it. The insulation of
the equipment can be protected if the shape of the voltage and current at the
diverter terminal is similar to the shape shown below.

Anideallightningarrestershouldhavethefollowingcharacteristics;

Page | 29
1.It shouldnotdrawanycurrentduringnormaloperatingcondition,i.e.,it sparks-over
voltage must be above the normal or abnormal power frequency that may occur in the
system.
2.Anytransientabnormalvoltageabovethebreakdownvaluemustcauseit to break
downasquicklyaspossiblesothatit mayprovideaconductingpathto ground.
3.Whenthebreakdownhastakenplace,it shouldbecapableof carryingtheresulting
dischargecurrentwithout gettingdamageditselfandwithout thevoltageacrossit
exceedingthebreakdownvalue.
4.Thepowerfrequencycurrentfollowingthebreakdownmustbeinterruptedassoon
asthetransientvoltagehasfallenbelowthebreakdownvalue.
Therearemanytypesof lightningarresterwhichareusedto protectthepowersystem.The
choicesof thelightningarresterdependonthefactorlike,voltageandfrequencyoftheline,
cost,weatherconditionandreliability.
Locationof LightningArrester
The lightning arrester is located close to the equipment that is to be protected. They are
usuallyconnectedbetweenphaseandgroundinanACsystemandpoleandgroundincase
of theDCsystem.InanACsystem,separatearresterisprovidedforeachphase.
Inanextra-highvoltageACsystemthesurgediverterisusedto protectthegenerators,
transformers,busbars,lines,circuitbreakers,etc.InHVDCsystemthearresterisusedto
protectthebuses,valvesconverterunitsreactors,filter,etc.

Neutral Groundreactor
In neutral grounding system, the neutral of the system or rotating system or
transformer is connected to the ground. The neutral grounding is an important
aspect of power system design because the performance of thesystem regarding
short circuits, stability, protection, etc., is greatly affected by the condition of the
neutral. A three phase system can be operated in two possible ways

1. With ungrounded neutral

2. With a grounded neutral
3. Ungrounded NeutralSystem
Inanungroundedneutralsystem,theneutralisnotconnectedto thegrounded.Inother
words,theneutralisisolatedfromtheground.Therefore,thissystemisalsoknownthe

Page | 30
isolatedneutralsystemor freeneutralsystemshownin thefigurebelow.

GroundedSystem
In neutral groundingsystem,the neutralof the systemisconnectedto the ground.Because
of the problemsassociatedwith ungroundedneutral systems,the neutralsare grounded in
mostof thehigh-voltagesystems.

Some of the advantages of neutral grounding areas follows

1. Voltages of phases are limited to the line-to-ground voltages.

2. Surge voltage due to arcing grounds iseliminated.

Page | 31
3. The over voltages due to lightning discharged to ground.

4. It provides greater safety topersonnel and equipment.

5. It provides improved servicereliability.

Method Of Neutral Grounding

The methods commonly used for grounding the system neutralare

1. Solid grounding (or effective grounding)

2. ResistanceGrounding

3. ReactanceGrounding

4. Peterson-coil grounding (or resonantgroundings)

The selection of the type of grounding depends on the size of the unit, system
voltage and protection scheme to beused.

Fixed SeriesCompensation
Definition: Series compensation is the method of improving the system voltage
by connecting a capacitor in series with the transmission line. In other words, in
series compensation, reactive power is inserted in series with the transmission
line for improving the impedance of the system. It improves the power transfer
capability of the line. It is mostly used in extra and ultra high voltage line.

Advantages of SeriesCompensation

Series compensation has several advantages like it increases transmission

capacity, improve system stability, control voltage regulation and ensure proper
load division among parallel feeders. These advantages are discussedbelow.

Page | 32
• Increase in Power Transfer Capability – The power transfer over a lineis

given by

where P1 – power transferred per phase (W)

Vs – sending-end phase voltage (V)

Vr – receiving-end phasevoltage

XL– series inductive reactance of theline

δ – phase angle between Vs and Vr

If a capacitor having capacitance reactance Xc is connected in series with the line,

the reactance of the line is reduced from XLto ( XL–Xc). The power transfer is
given by

where, The factor k is known as a degree of

compensation or compensation factor. Thus,

per unit compensation is given by the equation percentage compensation is given

by the equation Where XL= total series inductive reactance

of the line perphase

Page | 33
XC= capacitive reactance of the capacitor banck perphase

In practice , k lies between 0.4 and 0.7. For k = 0.5, Thus, the power transfer is
doubled by 50 %compensation.

•Improvement in System Stability – For same power transfer and for the same
value of sending and receiving end voltage, the phase angle δ in the case of the
series impedance line is less that for the uncompensated line. The reduced
value of δ gives higherstability.

•Load Division among Parallel Line – Series capacitors are used in transmission
systems for improving the load division between parallel lines. When the new line
with large power transfer capability is paralleled with an already existing line,
then it is difficult to load the new line without overloading the old line. In such
case the series compensation reduces the series reactance and proper load
division among parallel circuit can be done easily. Load division increases the
power transfer capability of the system and reduced losses.

•Control of Voltage – In series capacitor, there is an automatic change in Var

(reactive power) with the change in load current. Thus the drops in voltage levels
due to sudden load variations are corrected instantly.

Location of Seriescapacitor

The location of the series capacitor depends on the economic and technical
consideration of the line. The series capacitor may be located at thesending end,
receiving end, or at the center of the line. Sometimes they are located at two or
more points along the line.

The degree of compensation and the characteristic of the line decide the location
of the capacitors. Their installation at the terminal provides the facility of
maintenance, but the overvoltage appearing across the terminals of the
capacitors under fault conditions will over stress the capacitor.

The capacitors are installed in the intermediate switching station of comparatively

long lines. The location at the center of the line also reduced the rating of the
capacitor. The rating of the series capacitor is givenby

Page | 34
where I is the line current. Capacitor banks consist of small units connected in
series, parallel, or both to get the desired voltage and Var rating.

Protection Schemes for Series Capacitor

When the fault or overload occurs the large current will flow across the series
capacitor of the line. Thus, the excessive voltage drop occurs across the
transmission line. For protecting the capacitors from such abnormal voltages,
spark gaps and surge diverter are connected to the capacitor terminal.A circuit
breaker is also connected in parallel with it. Some of the methods of series

capacitor are shown below.

Problem associatedwithSeriescapacitor

Someoftheproblemsassociatedwiththeseries-capacitorapplicationaregivenbelowin
details

Page | 35
•The series compensated line produces series resonance at frequencies lower than
power frequencies. This is known as sub-synchronous resonance. The sub-synchronous
producesmechanicalstressdueto whichhightorsionalstressoccursintherotorshaft.The
problemofsub-synchronousresonancemostlyoccursduringfaultsorswitchingoperation.
The problem of sub-synchronous with series compensated lines is overcome by the
followingmethods.

o By using afilter.

o Bypassingtheseriescapacitorbankunderresonanceconditions.

o ByTrippingof thegeneratorunderresonancecondition.

•Seriescapacitorsproducedhighrecoveryvoltagesacrossthebreakerscontact.
•If thedegreeof compensationandlocationof capacitorsarenotproper,thedistance relays
usedforlineprotectionmaynotfunctionproperly.

•Switchinginof anunloadedtransformerattheendof aseriescompensationofthe line

mayproducenon-linearresonanceorferroresonance.Thismayresultinuninterrupted
oscillations.The frequency of the oscillation may be suppressed by using shunt reactors
acrossthecapacitorsorshortcircuitingthecapacitorstemporary.

•Lightlyloadsynchronousmotorshavegotatendencyto hunt.

Seriescapacitorproducesmorenetvoltagerisedueto whichmorevoltagedropsoccurs.

Page | 36
Page | 37
Shunt capacitor bank:
Shunt capacitor banks are used to improve the quality of the electrical supply and
the efficient
operation of the power system. Studies show that a flat voltage profile on the
system can significantly reduce line losses. Shunt capacitor banks are relatively
inexpensive and can be easily installed anywhere on the network. Shunt capacitor
banks (SCB)are mainly installed to provide capacitive reactive compensation/
Power factor correction. The use of SCBshas increased because they are relatively
inexpensive, easy and quick to install and can be deployed virtual y anywhere in
the network. Its installation has other beneficial effects on the system such as:
improvement of the voltage at the load, better voltage regulation (if they were
adequately designed), reduction of losses and reduction or postponement of
investments in transmission.
The main disadvantage of SCBis that its reactive power output is proportional to
the square of the voltage and consequently when the voltage is low and the
system need them most, they are the least efficient.
Various clearances required to be maintained as per Indian Electricity Rules and
Code o practice etc. during construction of a transmission line are given at
appropriate places in various chapters. However, for convenience, the various
clearances required to be maintained in the construction of a transmission line at
a glance are given in the followingtable.

PLCC(Power Line Carrier Communication):

POWERLINE CARRIERCOMMUNICATION equipment ( PLCC’s)are used for POINT
TOPOINT Communication over high voltage power lines PLCCequipment are
used to SENDORRECEIVEspeech / data teleportation signals by using HFcarrier
signal ranging from 30 Khz to 500KHz.

Page | 38
BASIC DIAGRAM OFPLCC

ADVANTAGES OFPLCC

 High reliability as that of thepower lines

 Low capital and running cost

B) Disadvantages
 Limited bandwidth of 4Khz
 Low speed of data transfer (typical 1200 baud, transfer of file
comprising of graphics size of 1 MB take minutes ). Needs separate
Battery/Battery chargers for reliable DCsupply Proven availability and
overall economy of the channel makes PLCCthe preferred
telecommunication medium of many powerauthority

Page | 39
 EQUIPMENTS OF PLCC

No. Equipment name Details

1 Wave trap An electronic filtering
device designed to
exclude unwanted signal
or interference from a
receiver.

Basically, it is a tuned circuit placed in the antenna path to your rig, which traps and
then dissipates the signal, or at least a bunch of it, from a station, allowing you to
reduce interference between stations
2 CC/ CVT(Coupling Coupling capacitor is pa
Capacitor) of the tuning circuit in
Power Line Carrie
Communication.
It provides low impedance path for carrier energy to HV line and blocks the power
frequency circuit by being a high impedance path. Standard ratings are 4400 PF an
8800 PF.
3 LMU(line matching unit) LMU is an impedance
matching device betwee
transmission line and H F

Page | 40
 cable to ensure maximu m
power transfer.
4 BT Balancing transformer will
be used to prevent
unbalancing of the line
impedance whenever one
line gets opened or
earthed
5 DRAIN COIL Drain coil is connected to
the point that connects
CVT and LMU on one
side, the-
-other side being earthed. Drain coil earthed the dangerous high voltage of power
frequency not blocked by the CVT
6 PANELS Terminal panel houses
power supply unit, carrie r
and pilot oscillators,
modulators, demodulato rs,
protection coupler etc.

Power system automation

Power system automation is the act of automatically controlling the power
system via instrumentation and control devices. Substation automation refersto
using data from Intelligent electronic devices (IED), control and automation
capabilities within the substation, and control commands from remote users to
control power systemdevices.
Automation Task
Data acquisition- Data acquisition refers to
acquiring, or collecting, data.
This data is collected in theform
of measured analog current or
voltage values or
The open or closed status ofcontact points. Acquired data can be
used locally within the device collecting it, sent to another device in

Page | 41
a substation, or sent from the substation to one or several
databases for use by operators, engineers, planners, and
administration.

Supervision Computer processes and

personnel supervise, or monitor,
the conditions and status of the
power system using this acquired
data. Operators and
engineers monitor the information remotely on computer displays
and graphical wall displays or locally, at the device, on front-panel
displays and laptop computers.

Control Control refers to sending

command messages to adevice
to operate the I&C and power
system devices. Traditional
supervisory control anddata
acquisition (SCADA) systems rely on operators to supervisethe
system and initiate commands from an operator console on the
master computer. Field personnel can also control devices using
front-panel push buttons or a laptopcomputer.

Application:-
Over voltage protection All lines and all electrical equipment
must be protected againstprolonged
overcurrent. If the cause of the
overcurrent is nearby then
automatically that current is interrupted immediately. But if the cause of
the overcurrent is outside the local area then a backup provision
automatically disconnects all affected circuits after a suitable time delay.

Reclosing operations of circuit breakers usually are

attempted automatically, and often are successful duringthunderstorms,
for example.

Page | 42
 Supervisory control and It is the system which transmitsand
data acquisition receives logic or data fromevents of
controls, metering, measuring,
(SCADA) safety and monitoring of process
devices such as Electrical equipment,
Instrumentation devices, telecommunication on industrial applications.
Some power stations can control other stations via communicationlinks
over long distances
Remote switching, telemetering of home grids (showing voltage,current,
power, direction, consumption inkWh, etc.), even automatic synchronization
is used in some power systems.

NTERFACESOFTHESCADASYSTEM
 Operator Interface
 Switchyard Plant Interface
 Regional Load Dispatch Centre
Interfaces
 CCPControl Interface
 Cooling SystemControl
Interface
 Energy Metering Equipment
Interface
 Mimic Panel Interface

Auxiliaries System
ELECTRICALAUXILIARIES IN SUBSTATIONSare:-
A. LTSwitchgear
B. Power & Control Cables
C.Batteries
D. Battery Chargers
E. LTTransformers
F. DGsets
G.Substation Lighting
H. Air-Conditioning System

Page | 43
I. Fire Protection System

LTSWITCHGEAR [AC & DCSWITCHBOARDS]:-

Safety aspects-All switchboards shall necessarily have earth bus bar throughout
the length , which shall be welded/bolted with each panel. Earth bus of
switchboard at both ends shall be finally welded/ bolted with main horizontal
earth bus of substation.
Clearances- The minimum clearances in air between phases and between phase
and earth shall be 25 mm for the entire run of horizontal and vertical bus bars
Type Testing & Its Relevance-
Following type testing are broadly identified to conform the design requirements
of power & controlcables.
I.Physical Tests-This consists of dimensional measurement, tensile strength,
elongation tests, ageing requirements , hot deformation etc. of insulation , inner
sheath, armor and outer sheaths of cables.
II.Electrical Tests-This consists of high voltage AC& DCtests, insulation
resistance, volume restively etc. of cables.
III.Chemical Tests-This consists of galvanizing test on amours, oxygen index ,
temperature index , thermal stability test etc. on cables.

BATTERIES& BATTERYCHARGERS[D.C.SYSTEM]:-
Functions with the batteries in substation:-
220 VOLTFORPROTECTIONANDCONTROL
48 VOLTFORPLCC
ADOPTED DCSCHEME
TWO BATTERYAND TWO CHARGERSCHEME

Type Testing & Its Relevance-

Capacity Tests- this category tests are performed to verify capacity declared and
ability to deliver desired duty cycle by battery during its life span

Page | 44
Sensitivity Tests- tests are performed to verify above as per requirement of
standards and technical specifications.

FIREPROTECTION SYSTEM:-
Following type of fire protection systems are considered for substations:

-Hydrant System

-High Velocity Water (HVW)system.

-Fire detection System

-Fire Extinguishers.

Hydrant System: - Hydrant system of fire protection system essentially consists of

a large network of pipe which feeds pressurized water to a number of hydrant
valves, indoor as well as outdoor. These hydrant valves are located at strategic
locations near buildings, transformers and reactors. Hydrant protection are
provided for the following in the substation.
Control Room Building

Firefighting pumphouse

LTtransformer Area

Stores

Main Transformers

Shunt Reactors/Bus Reactors

Electrical & Instrumentation-

Following local control panels are used for complete auto control
protection/annunciations of Fire protectionsystem-

Page | 45
Jockey Pump local control panel
HVW pump local control panel.

Diesel Engine local control panel.

FFACdistributionboard.

FF DC distributionboard.

FFBuilding Annunciation panel.

Control room building annunciation panel

Page | 46
SECTION – 3 (FAULT &SUBSTATION
PROTECTION)
FAULT

What is fault?

In an electric power system, a fault or fault current is any abnormal electric

current. For example, a short circuit is a fault in which current bypasses the
normal load. An open-circuit fault occurs if a circuit is interrupted by some failure.
In three-phase systems, a fault may involve one or more phases and ground, or
may occur only between phases. In a "ground fault" or "earth fault", current flows
into the earth. The prospective short-circuit current of a predictable fault can be
calculated for most situations. In power systems, protective devices can detect
fault conditions and operate circuit breakers and other devices to limit the loss of
service due to a failure.

Types of fault

Open Circuit Faults

These faults occur due to the failure of one or more conductors. The figure
below illustrates the open circuit faults for single, two and three phases (or
conductors) open condition.The most common causes of these faults include
joint failures of cables and overhead lines, and failure of one or more phase of
circuit breaker and also due to melting of a fuse or conductor in one or more
phases.Open circuit faults are also called as series faults. These are
unsymmetrical or unbalanced type of faults except three p hase open fault.

Short Circuit Faults

A short circuit can be defined as an abnormal connection of very low impedance

between two points of different potential, whether made intentionally or accidentally.
These are the most common and severe kind of faults, resulting in the flow of abnormal
high currents through the equipment or transmission lines. If these faults are allowed to

Page | 47
persist even for a short period, it leads to the extensive damage to the equipment.Short
circuit faults are also called as shunt faults. These faults are caused due to the
insulation failure between phase conductors or between earth and phase conductors or
both.The various possible short circuit fault conditions include three phase to earth,
three phase clear of earth, phase to phase, single phase to earth, two phase to earth
and phase to phase plus single phase to earth as shown in figure.The three phase fault
clear of earth and three phase fault to earth are balanced or symmetrical short circuit
faults while other remaining faults are unsymmetrical faults.

Symmetric fault

A symmetric or balanced fault affects each of the three phases equally. In

transmission line faults, roughly 5% are symmetric.[2] This is in contrast to an
asymmetrical fault, where the three phases are not affected equally.These faults rarely
occur in practice as compared with unsymmetrical faults. Two kinds of symmetrical
faults include line to line to line (L-L-L) and line to line to line to ground (L-L-L-G). A
rough occurrence of symmetrical faults is in the range of 2 to 5% of the total system
faults. However, if these faults occur, they cause a very severe damage to the
equipment even though the system remains in balanced condition.

Asymmetric fault

An asymmetric or unbalanced fault does not affect each of the three phases
equally. Common types of asymmetric faults, and their causes:

line-to-line - a short circuit between lines, caused by ionization of air, or when lines
come into physical contact, for example due to a broken insulator. In transmission line
faults, roughly 5% - 10% are asymmetric line-to-line faults.

line-to-ground - a short circuit between one line and ground, very often caused by
physical contact, for example due to lightning or other storm damage. In transmission
line faults, roughly 65% - 70% are asymmetric line-to-ground faults.

Double line-to-ground - two lines come into contact with the ground also commonly due
to storm damage. In transmission line faults, roughly 15% - 20% are asymmetric double
line-to-ground.

Causes of fault

Healthy insulation within the instrumentation exposed to any transient over voltages of
little time length because of switching and lightning strokes, direct or indirect. Insulation

Page | 48
failure is also happened, resulting in terribly large fault current. This current is also quite
ten times the nominal current of the instrumentation.

Ageing of power equipment's could reason breakdown of it uniform at usual power

frequency voltage.

External object like bird, kite string, or limb are considered as external reason behind
fault. These objects could span each conductor and ground inflicting single-line to
ground faults (phase-earth) or span 2 conductors inflicting phase-phase fault.

Effect of fault

The fault should be cleared as quickly as potential. Several equipment might be

wrecked if the fault isn't cleared speedily. The damaging of the faults depends on the
sort of the fault, as example the 3 part short circuit is that the most dangerous fault as a
result of the short current is maximum. a number of the results of short current area unit
listed here under.

Due to heating and therefore the mechanical forces established by faults, electrical
equipment's like bus bars, generators, transformers are going to be broken.

Negative sequence current rises from unsymmetrical faults will result in heating.

Voltage profiles are also condensed to undesirable limits as a outcome of faults. A

frequency drop could result in instability.

SUBSTATION PROTECTION

Introduction

Power System Protection is a branch of electrical power engineering that deals with the
protection of electrical power system from fault through the isolation of faulty part.

why do we need protection?

 The objective of the protection scheme is to keep power system stable by

isolating only the component that are under fault, while leaving as much of the
network possible still in operation.
 Under the abnormal working condition protection is necessary for safety of
electrical equipment and safety of human being

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 Basic protection requirement

 Reliability-dependability (availability), high dependability=low risk

failure to trip.

 Security-stable for all operating conditions, high security=low risk of over trip.
 Sensitivity-notice smallest fault value.
 Selectivity-trip the minimum no. of circuit breaker.
 Speed-high speed may result in undesired operation during transient faults
and low speed result in damage to the equipment.

Protection Devices

Fuse-It opens the circuit whenever a fault exists in the system. It consists of a thin
copper wire enclosed in a glass or a casing with two metallic contacts. The high fault
current rises the temperature of the wire and hence it melts. A fuse necessitates the
manual replacement of wire each time when it blows.

Circuit Breaker- It is the most common protection device that can make or break the
circuit either manually or through remote control under normal operating conditions.

Protective Relays - These are the fault detecting devices. These devices detect the
fault and initiate the operation of the circuit breaker so as to isolate the faulty circuit. A
relay consists of a magnetic coil and contacts (NC and NO). The fault current energizes
the coil and this causes to produce the field, thereby the contacts get operated.

Lighting Arrestor -Surges in the power system network caused when lightning strikes
on transmission lines and equipment. This causes high voltage and currents in the
system. These lighting faults are reduced by placing lighting arrestors at transmission
equipment.

RELAY

What is Relay?

In electrical engineering, a protective relay is an electromechanical apparatus, often

with more than one coil, designed to calculate operating conditions on an electrical
circuit and trip circuit breakers when a fault is detected. Electromechanical protective
relays operate by either magnetic attraction, or magnetic induction.

Types of Relay

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1. Overcurrent Relay- The overcurrent relay is defined as the relay, which operates
only when the value of the current is greater than the relay setting time. It protects the
equipment of the power system from the fault current.

2. Induction Disc over current relay- This Induction Type Overcurrent Relay works on
the induction principle and initiates corrective measures when current in the circuit
exceeds the predetermined value. The actuating source is a current in the circuit
supplied to the relay from a current transformer. These relays are used on a.c. circuits
only and can operate for fault current flow in either direction.

The example of electromechanical relays used in POWERGRID networks apart from

auxiliary relays are as under:

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3.Distance Relay- There is one type of relay which functions depending upon the
distance of fault in the line. More specifically, the relay operates depending upon the
impedance between the point of fault and the point where relay is installed. These
relays are known as distance relay or impedance relay.

(Distance Protection: Micromho, quadramho, from M/S AREVA, LZ96, RAZFE from M/S
ABB)

3.Differential Relays-Differential relays are very sensitive to the faults occurred within
the zone of protection but they are least sensitive to the faults that occur outside the
protected zone. Most of the relays operate when any quantity exceeds beyond a
predetermined value for example over current relay operates when current through it
exceeds predetermined value. But the principle of differential relay is somewhat
different. It operates depending upon the difference between two or more similar
electrical quantities.

4.Digital protective relay- The functions of electromechanical protection systems are

now being replaced by microprocessor-based digital protective relays, sometimes called
"numeric relays". These convert voltage and currents to digital form and process the
resulting measurements using a microprocessor. The digital relay can emulate functions
of many discrete electromechanical relays in one device, simplifying protection design
and maintenance. Each digital relay can run self-test routines to confirm its readyness
and alarm if a fault is detected. Numeric relays can also provide functions such as
communications (SCADA) interface, monitoring of contact inputs, metering, waveform
analysis, and other useful features. Digital relays can, for

SIEMEN’S RELAY

Example, store two sets of protection parameters, which allow the behaviour of the relay
to be changed during maintenance of attached equipment.

Name the equipment to be protected

 Transformer Protection
 Bus bar protection
 Reactor protection

TRANFORMER PROTECTION
INTRODUCTION

•The power transformer is one of the most important links in a power transmission and
distribution system.

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•It is a highly reliable piece of equipment. This reliability depends on

•adequate design

•careful erection

•proper maintenance

•application of protection system

PROTECTION EQUIPMENT INCLUDES 1. Surge diverters 2. Gas relay: It gives early

warning of a slowly developing fault, permitting shutdown and repair before severe
damage can occur. 3. Electrical relays.

•The choice of suitable protection is also governed by economic considerations.

Although this factor is not unique to power transformers, it is brought in prominence by
the wide range of transformer ratings used( few KVA to several hundreds MVA)

•Only the simplest protection such as fuses can be justified for transformers of lower
ratings.

•for large transformers best protection should be provided.

TYPES OF FAULTS AFFECTING POWER TRANSFORMER

• THROUGH FAULTS

a) Overload conditions.

b) External short-circuit conditions.

The transformer must be disconnected when such faults occur only after allowing a
predetermined time during which other protective gears should have operated.

INTERNAL FAULTS

The primary protection of a power transformer is intended for conditions which arises as
a result of faults inside the protection zone.

1. Phase-to-earth fault or phase- to- phase fault on HV and LV external terminals

2. Phase-to-earth fault or phase-to- phase fault on HV and LV windings.

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3.Interturn faults of HV and LV windings.

4.Earth fault on tertiary winding, or short circuit between turns of a tertiary windings.

5.So called „incipient‟ faults which are initially minor faults, causing gradually developing
fault. These types of faults are not easily detectable at the winding terminals by
unbalance current or voltage.

NATURE & EFFECT OF TRANSFRMER FAULTS A faults on transformer winding is

controlled in magnitude by

a) Source & neutral earthing impedance

b) Leakage reactance of the transformer

c) Position of the fault on the winding.

Following distinct cases are examined below (1) Star connected winding with neutral
point earthed through an impedance Earth fault on resistance earthed star winding

transformer differential protection Basic discussions related to the Merz-Price

Scheme and its limitations which are taken care by the biased differential scheme, are
omitted for repetition

Basic considerations
a. Transformation ratio

The nominal currents in the primary and secondary sides of the transformer vary in
inverse ratio to the corresponding voltages. This should be compensated for by using
different transformation ratios for the CTs on the primary and secondary sides of the
transformer.

b. Current Transformer Connections

When a transformer is connected in star/delta, the secondary current has a phase

shift of 300 relative to the primary

• This phase shift can be offset by suitable secondary CT connections

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•The zero-sequence currents flowing on the star-side of the transformer will not
produce current outside the delta on the other side. The zero sequence current must
therefore be eliminated from the star-side by connecting the CTs in delta.

•The CTs on delta side should be connected in star in order to give 300 phase shift.

•When CTs are connected in delta, their secondary ratings must be reduced to 1/3
times the secondary ratings of the star-connected transformer, in order that the currents
outside the delta may balance with the secondary currents of the star-connected CTs.

•If transformers were connected in star/star, the CTs on both sides would need be
connected in delta-delta.

c. Bias to cover tap-changing facility and CT mismatch

•If the transformer has the benefit of a tap changer, it is possible to vary its
transformation ratio for voltage control.

•The differential protection system should be able to cope with this variation.

•This is because if the CTs are chosen to balance for the mean ratio of the power
transformer, a variation in ratio from the mean will create an unbalance proportional to
the ratio change. At maximum through fault current, the spill output produced by the
small percentage unbalance may be substantial

•Differential protection should be provided with a proportional bias of an amount which

exceeds in effect the maximum ratio deviation. This stabilizes the protection under
through fault conditions while still permitting the system to have good basic sensitivity.

d. Magnetization Inrush

•The magnetizing inrush produces a current flow into the primary winding that does not
have any equivalent in the secondary winding. The net effect is thus similar to the
situation when there is an internal fault on the transformer.

•Since the differential relay sees the magnetizing current as an internal fault, it is
necessary to have some method of distinguishing between the magnetizing current and
the fault current using one or all of the following methods.

 Using a differential relay with a suitable sensitivity to cope with the magnetizing
current, usually obtained by a unit that introduces a time delay to cover the
period of the initial inrush peak.

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•Using a harmonic-restraint unit, or a supervisory unit, in conjunction with a differential
unit.

•Inhibiting the differential relay during the energizing the transformer.

Buchholz relay All faults below the oil in transformer result in the localized heating &
breakdown of the oil, some degree of arcing will always take place in a winding fault &
the resulting decomposition of it will release gases such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide
& hydrocarbons.

•When the fault is of a very minor type, such as hot joints gas is released slowly, but a
major fault involving severe arcing causes rapid release of large volumes of gas as well
as oil vapour.

•Such incipient faults of smaller or larger magnitudes can be detected by a gas

actuated relay known as Bucholtz Relay.

The Bucholtz Relay is contained in a cast housing which is connected as shown below
between the conservator tank and main tank of the transformer.

Under normal conditions, the Buchholz relay is full of oil. It consists of a cast housing
containing a hinged hollow float. A mercury switch is attached to a float. The float being
rotated in the upper part of the housing. Another hinged flap valve is located in the lower
part which is directly in the path of the oil between tank and the conservator. Another
mercury switch is attached to a flap valve. The float closes the alarm circuit while the
lower flap valve closes the trip circuit in case of internal faults.

Operation There are many types of internal faults such as insulation fault, core heating,
bad switch contacts, faulty joints etc. which can occur. When the fault occurs the
decomposition of oil in the main tank starts due to which the gases are generated. As
mentioned earlier, major component of such gases is hydrogen. The hydrogen tries to
rise up towards conservator but in its path it gets accumulated in the upper part of the
Buchholz relay. Through passage of the gas is prevented by the flap valve.

When gas gets accumulated in the upper part of housing, the oil level inside the housing
falls. Due to which the hollow float tilts and closes the contacts of the mercury switch
attached to it. This completes the alarm circuit to sound an alarm. Due to this operator
knows that there is some incipient fault in the transformer. The transformer is
disconnected and the gas sample is tested. The testing results give the indication, what
type of fault is started developing in the transformer. Hence transformer can be
disconnected before grows into a serious one. The alarm circuit does not immediately
disconnect the transformer but gives only an indication to the operator. This is because

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sometimes bubbles in the oil circulating system may operate the alarm circuit even
though actually there is no fault. However if a serious fault such as internal short circuit
between phases, earth fault inside the tank etc. occurs then the considerable amount of
gas gets generated. In that case, due to a fast reduction in the level of oil, the pressure
in the tank increases. Due to this the oil rushes towards the conservator. While doing so
it passes through the relay where flap valve is present. The flap valve gets deflected due
to the rushing oil and operates the mercury switch, thereby energizing the trip circuit
which opens the circuit breaker of transformer is totally disconnected from the supply.
The connecting pipe between the tank and the conservator should be as straight as
possible and should slope upwards conservator at a small angle from the horizontal.
This angle should be around 100. For the economic considerations, Buchholz relays are
not provided for the transformer having rating below 500 KVA.

Advantages The various advantages of the Buchholz relay are, 1. Normally a

protective relay does not indicate the appearance of the fault. It operates when fault
occurs. But Buchholz relay gives an indication of the fault at very early stage, by
anticipating the fault and operating the alarm circuit. Thus the transformer can be taken
out of service before any type of serious damage occurs. 2. It is the simplest protection
in case of transformers. 2.8.3 Limitations The various limitation of the Buchholz relay
are, 1. Can be used only for oil immersed transformers having conservator tanks. 2.
Only faults below oil level are detected. 3. Setting of the mercury switches cannot be
kept too sensitive otherwise the relay can operate due to bubbles, vibration,
earthquakes mechanical shocks etc. 4. The relay is slow to operate having minimum
operating time of 0.1 seconds and average time of 0.2 seconds.

Applications The following types of transformer faults can be protected by the

Buchholz relay and are indicated by alarm: 1. Local overheating 2. Entrance of air
bubbles in oil 3. Core bolt insulation failure 4. Short circuited laminations 5. Loss of oil
and reduction in oil level due to leakage 6. Bad and loose electrical contacts 7. Short
circuit between phases 8. Winding short circuit 9. Bushing puncture 10. Winding earth
fault.

REACTOR PROTECTION
A reactor protection system (RPS) is a set of nuclear safety and security components in
a nuclear power plant designed to safely shut down the reactor and prevent the release
of radioactive materials. The system can "trip" automatically (initiating a scram), or it can
be tripped by the operators. Trips occurs when the parameters meet or exceed the limit
setpoint. A trip of the RPS results in full insertion (by gravity in pressurized water
reactors or high-speed injection in boiling water reactors) of all control rods and
shutdown of the reactor.

Page | 57
a. differential protection

b. restricted earth fault protection

c. directional over current protection / or

d. back up impedance protection

BUSBAR PROTECTION
The protection scheme for a power system should cover the whole system against all
probable types of faults. Unrestricted forms of line protection such as over current and
distance systems, meet this requirement, although faults in the Bus bar zone are
cleared only after some time delay. If unit protection is applied to feeder and plant the
bus bars are not inherently protected. Bus bars have been left without specific
protection. Different bus bar faults are as follows. BUSBAR FAULTS

•Majority of bus faults involve one phase and earth, but faults arise from many causes
and a significant number are inter-phase clear of earth.

•With fully phase-segregated metal clad gear, only earth faults are possible ,and a
protective scheme need have earth fault sensitivity only.

•For outdoor busbars , protection schemes ability to respond to inter-phase faults clear
of earth is an advantage

•System protection used to cover bus bars

•Frame –earth protection

•Differential protection

Bus bar Faults:

1.Majority of Bus Faults involve one phase and earth.

2.A large proportion of Bus Bar faults result from human error rather than the failure of
switchgear components.

Bus bar Protection Systems:-

Low Impedance Differential Protection

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The most suitable protection scheme for Double and multiple bus bar Systems (with or
without transfer bus) with feeders being switched between sections of the bus bar, this
operates with full selectivity for all possible bus bar configurations.

High Impedance Differential Protection

The High-impedance protection scheme, on the other hand, is a good solution for single
busbar arrangements, 1 ½ breaker systems or ring bus bars, providing that appropriate
dedicated CT cores are available for this use alone.

FEEDER PROTECTION
Over current and earth fault protection It is customary to have two elements of over
current and one element of earth fault protection system in the most elementary form of
protection of three phase feeders. Different types of feeders employ the over current
protection along with the directional relay so that proper discrimination of an internal
fault is possible. Some examples are illustrated below.

Application of directional relays to parallel feeders

It may be seen from the below given parallel feeders that the relays placed at the load
side of both the lines use directional element which respond to a direction away from
the bus bars. Similarly, the relays placed at the source side do not require any
directional element.

Application of directional relays to ring mains

A similar concept of discrimination is also utilized in the below given ring main feeder
and a feeder fed from both the sides. It can be observed that relays placed near the bus
connecting the sources, don not have any directional feature, where as the rest of the
buses, respond to a direction always away from the source. It is good practice to locate
a fault any where among different sections of the feeders and check whether that
particular section only is isolated without disrupting the power flow in other sections.

Over current protection radial system 2.2 Pilot wire schemes for feeder protection In
differential protection scheme, the current entering at one end of the line and leaving
from other end of the line is compared. The pilot wires are used to connect the relays.
Under normal working condition, the two currents at both ends are equal and pilot wires
do not carry any current, keeping relays inoperative. Under an internal fault condition,
the two currents at both the ends are no longer same, this causes circulating current

Page | 59
flow through pilot wires and makes the relay to trip. The various schemes used with this
method of protection are, 1. Merz-Price Voltage Balance System 2. Translay Scheme
Merz-Price Voltage Balance System The figure below shows Merz-Price voltage
balance system used for the three phase feeders.

Under normal condition, current entering the line at one end is equal to current leaving
from the other end. Therefore, equal and opposite voltages are induced in the
secondaries of C.T.s. at the two ends resulting in no current flow, through the relay.
Under fault condition, two currents at the two ends are different. Thus the secondary
voltages of both the end C.T.s differ from each other. This circulates a circulating
current through the pilot wires and the relays. Thus the relays trip the circuit breakers to
isolate the faulty section. The advantages of this method are as follows 1. It can be
used for parallel as well as ring main system. 2. It provides instantaneous protection to
ground faults. The limitations of this method are as follows 1. The C.T.s used must
match accurately. 2. The pilot wires must be healthy without discontinuity. 3.
Economically not suitable as the cost is high due to long pilot wires. 4. Due to long pilot
wires, capacitive effects adversely bias the operation of the relays. 5. The large voltage
drop in the pilot wires requiring better insulation. 2.2.2 Translay Scheme

The translay relay is another type of differential relay. The arrangement is similar to
overcurrent relay but the secondary winding is not closed on itself. Additionally copper
ring or copper shading bands are provided on the central limb as shown in the figure
below.

In this scheme, two such relays are employed at the two ends of feeder as shown in the
figure below.

The secondaries of the two relays are connected to each other using pilot wires. The
connection is such that the voltages induced in the two secondaries oppose each other.
The copper coils are used to compensate the effect of pilot wire capacitance currents
and unbalance between two currents transformers.

Under normal operating conditions, the current at the two ends of the feeder is same.
The primaries of the two relays carry the same currents inducing the same voltage in
the secondaries. As these two voltages are in opposition, no current flows through the
two secondaries circuits and no torque is exerted on the discs of both the relays. When
the fault occurs, the currents at the two ends of the feeder are different. Hence unequal
voltages are induced in the secondaries. Hence the circulating current flows in the
secondary circuit causing torque to be exerted on the disc of each relay. But as the
secondaries are in opposition, hence torque in one relay operates so as to close the trip
circuit while in other relay the torque restricts the operation. Care must be taken so that,
at least one relay operates under the fault condition. Role of copper ring: Mainly relays

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may operate because of unbalance in the current transformers. The copper rings are so
adjusted that the torque due to current induced in the copper ring due to primary
winding of relay is restraining and do not allow the disc to rotate. It is adjusted just to
neutralize the effect of unbalance existing between the current transformers. The
copper rings also neutralize the effect of pilot capacitive currents. Though the feeder
current is same at two ends, a capacitive current may flow in the pilots. This current
leads the secondary voltage by 90o. The copper rings are adjusted such that no torque
is exerted on the disc, due to such capacitive pilot currents. Therefore in this scheme
the demerits of pilot relaying scheme is somewhat taken care of.

The advantages of this scheme are,

1. Only two pilot wires are required. 2. The cost is very low. 3. The current transformers
with normal design can be employed. 4. The capacitive effects of pilot wire currents do
not affect the operation of the relays. 2.3 Carrier Current unit protection system

The basic block diagram and various components

The Schematic diagram of the carrier current scheme is shown below. Different basic
components of the same are discussed below. The Coupling capacitor These coupling
capacitors (CU) which offer low reactance to the higher frequency carrier signal and
high reactance to the power frequency signal. Therefore, it filters out the low ( power)
frequency and allows the high frequency carrier waves to the carrier current equipment.
A low inductance is connected to the CU, to form a resonant circuit.

Wave Traps The Wave traps ( also known as Line Trap) are inserted between the
busbar and the connection of the CU. These traps are L and C elements connected in
parallel, and they are tuned in such a manner that they offer low reactance to the power
frequency signals and high reactance to the carrier waves. They ensure that neither of
these different frequency signals get mixed up before being received at the bus bar.
Both the CU and the Wave traps are protected from switching and lightening surges,
with the help suitably designed Spark Gaps or Varistors.

Frequency spacing Different frequencies are used in adjacent lines and the wave traps
ensure that carrier signals of other lines do not enter a particular line section. Therefore,
proper choice of frequency bands for different lines are adopted.

Transmitter Unit

In a Transmitter unit, the carrier frequency in the range of 50 to 500 khz of constant
magnitude is generated in the oscillator, which is fed to an amplifier. Amplification is
required to overcome any loss in the coupling equipment, weather conditions, Tee
connections in the lines of different size and length. The amplifier and the oscillators are

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constantly energized and a connection is made between the two with the help of a
control unit.

Receiver Unit

The Receiver unit consists of an attenuator and a Band pass filter, which restricts the
acceptance of any unwanted signals. The unit also has matching transformer to match
the line impedance and that of the receiver unit.

MODULATOR

The Modulator modulates, the 50 Hz power signals with high frequency carrier waves
and the modulated signal is fed to an amplifier. The amplifier output is transmitted via a
CU. It takes half a cycle of power signal to produce requisite Blocks of carrier as shown
above.

The Schematic of CCE

The CTs connected to the transmission line feed the Summation block which consist of
Network sequence filters. It transforms the CT output to a single phase voltage signal
that is representative of the fault condition. The voltage signal is used to control the
output from the local transmitter unit, through the starting relay known as Starter. It
therefore initiates comparison between the local transmitter output and the signal
received from the remote receiver in the comparator. The comparator output condition
then initiates the Trip relay.

The principle of Phase Comparison is one of the methods that involve decision of
tripping. As shown above, the presence of blocks of carrier signals abort any tripping
and its absence initiates the tripping. Therefore, in a section of transmission line, where
CTs at both end buses are connected 180 degree out of phase, an absence of carrier
signal can only be possible if an Internal fault has occurred. However, it can be seen
that such absence of carrier blocks is not possible for an external fault.

Application advantages and multiple roles of CCE Pilot channel such are carrier
current over the power line provides simultaneous tripping of circuit-breakers at both the
ends of the line in one to three cycles. Thereby high speed fault clearing is obtained,
which improves the stability of the power system. Besides there are several other merits
of carrier current relaying. There are : 1. Fast, simultaneous operating of circuit-
breakers at both ends. 2. Auto-reclosing simultaneous reclosing signal is sent thereby
simultaneous (1 to 3 cycles) reclosing of circuit breaker is obtained. 3. Fast clearing
prevents shocks to systems. 4. Tripping due to synchronizing power surges does not
occur, yet during internal fault clearing is obtained. 5. For simultaneous faults, carrier
current protection provides easy discrimination. 6. Fast (2 cycle) and auto-reclosing

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circuit breakers such as air blast circuit breaker require faster relaying. Hence, the
carrier current relaying is best suited for fast relaying in conjunction with modern fast
circuit breaker. 7. The carrier current equipment is used for several other application
besides protection. They are as follows (a) Station to station communication. In power
station, receiving stations and sub-stations telephones are provided. These are
connected to carrier current equipment and conversion can be carried out by means of
"Current Carrier Communication". (b) Control. Remote control of power station
equipment by carrier signals. (c) Telemetering.

Media used for protection signaling

• Power - line - carrier circuits

• Pilot wires

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Section-IV Transmission Line
Transmission Lines
A transmission line is used for the transmission of electrical power from generating
substation to the various distribution units. It transmits the wave of voltage and current
from one end to another. The transmission line is made up of a conductor having a
uniform cross-section along the line. Air act as an insulating or dielectric medium
between the conductors.

For safety purpose, the distance between the line and ground is much more. The
electrical tower is used for supporting the conductors of the transmission line.Tower are
made up of steel for providing high strength to the conductor. For transmitting high
voltage, over long distance high voltage direct current is used in the transmission line.

Parameters of transmissionline
The performance of transmission line depends on the parameters of the line. The
transmission line has mainly four parameters, resistance, inductance, capacitance and
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shunt conductance. These parameters are uniformly distributed along the line. Hence, it
is also called the distributed parameter of the transmission line.

The inductance and resistance form series impedance whereas the capacitance and
conductance form the shunt admittance. Some critical parameters of transmission line
are explained below in detail

Line inductance – The current flow in the transmission line induces the magnetic
flux.When the current in the transmission line changes, the magnetic flux also varies
due to which emf induces in the circuit. The magnitude of inducing emf depends on the
rate of change of flux. Emf produces in the transmission line resist the flow of current in
the conductor, and this parameter is known as the inductance of the line.

Line capacitance – In the transmission lines, air acts as a dielectric medium. This
dielectric medium constitutes the capacitor between the conductors, which store the
electrical energy, or increase the capacitance of the line. The capacitance of the
conductor is defined as the present of charge per unit of potential difference.

Capacitance is negligible in short transmission lines whereas in long transmission; it is

the most important parameter. It affects the efficiency, voltage regulation, power factor
and stability of the system.

Shunt conductance – Air act as a dielectric medium between the conductors. When
the alternating voltage applies in a conductor, some current flow in the dielectric
medium because of dielectric imperfections. Such current is called leakage current.
Leakage current depends on the atmospheric condition and pollution like moisture and
surface deposits.

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 Shunt conductance is defined as the flow of leakage current between the conductors. It
is distributed uniformly along the whole length of the line. The symbol Y represented it,
and it is measured in Siemens.

Performance of transmissionlines
The term performance includes the calculation of sending end voltage, sending end
current, sending end power factor, power loss in the lines, efficiency of transmission,
regulation and limits of power flows during steady state and transient conditions.
Performance calculations are helpful in system planning. Some critical parameters are
explained below

Voltage regulation – Voltage regulation is defined as the change in the magnitude of

the voltage between the sending and receiving ends of the transmission line.

The efficiency of transmission lines – Efficiency of the transmission lines is defined

as the ratio of the input power to the output power.

Importantpoints

 Admittance measures the capability of an electrical circuit or we can say it measures the
efficiency of a transmission line, to allows AC to flow through them without any
obstruction. It SI unit is Siemens and denoted by the symbol Y.
 Impedance is the inverse of the admittance. Its measure the difficulty occurs in the
transmission line when the AC flow. It is measured in ohms and represented by the
symbol z.

introduction

transmission and distribution are virtual links between generating station and consumer
as power from generating stations is transmitted at high voltage over long distances to
the major load center and then power is distributed to various substations located at
various places through distribution line.Distribution line can be classified into two parts.

1.0verhead transmission line

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High-voltage overhead conductors are not covered by insulation. The conductor
material is nearly always an aluminium alloy, made into several strands and possibly
reinforced with steel strands. Overhead conductors are a commodity supplied by
several companies worldwide. Improved conductor material and shapes are regularly
used to allow increased capacity and modernize transmission circuits. Thicker wires
would lead to a relatively small increase in capacity due to the skin effect, that causes
most of the current to flow close to the surface of the wire. Because of this current
limitation, multiple parallel cables (called bundle conductors) are used when higher
capacity is needed. Bundle conductors are also used at high voltages to reduce energy
loss caused by corona discharge

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.

2.underground transmission line

Electric power can also be transmitted by underground power cables instead of

overhead power lines. Underground cables take up less right-of-way than overhead
lines, have lower visibility, and are less affected by bad weather. However, costs of
insulated cable and excavation are much higher than overhead construction. Faults in
buried transmission lines take longer to locate and repair. Underground lines are strictly
limited by their thermal capacity, which permits less overload or re-rating than overhead
lines. Long underground cables have significant capacitance, which may reduce their
ability to provide useful power to loads.

Main components of overhead transmission line:-

Conductors :- Which Carry electric power from the sending end station to the receiving
end station.
Supports- Supports may be poles or tower and keep the conductor at a suitable

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Insulator:- Insulators are attached to support and insulate the conductor form the
ground.
Cross-Arms:- Cross arms provide support to their insulator

CONDUCTORS

necessary properties:-

 High electrical conductivity

 High tensile strength in order to withstand mechanical stresses
 Low cost so that it can be used for long distribution line
 Long specific gravity so the weight per unit volume is small

Here A.C.S.R.(ALUMINIUM CONDUCTOR STEEL RAINFORCED) conductors are

used.

ALUMINIUM CONDUCTOR STEEL RAINFORCED

Steel-cored aluminium conductor

consists of central core of galvanized
steel wires surrounded by a number of
aluminium strands. The X-section of
aluminium and steel are generally in
the ratio of 6:1.

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Advantages:-
The reinforcement with steel increase the tensile strength but at the same time keeps
the composite conductor light. Therefore, steel-cored aluminium conductors will produce
smaller sag and hence longer spam can be used.
Due to smaller sag with steel-cored aluminium conductors, towers of smaller heights
can be used.

SUPPORTS/TOWER
NECESSARY PROPERTIES

High mechanical strength to withstand the weight of conductors and wind load etc.
Light in weight without the loss of mechanical strength.
Cheap in cost, longer life, Easy accessibility of conductor for maintenance.

Here two types of steel Towers are used.

1. Suspension Tower
2. Angle tower.

As per the deviation 20 Suspension

of angle the tower 20-150 Angle Tower
can be divided into 4 150-600 Angle Tower
parts. A-Type 600-above Angle Tower
B-Type
C-Type
D-Type

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SUSPENSION TOWER

ANGLE TOWER

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 SUSPENSION TOWER

INSULATOR
An electrical insulator is a material whose internal electric charges do not flow freely;
very little electric current will flow through it under the influence of an electric field. This
contrasts with other materials, semiconductors and conductors, which conduct electric
current more easily. The property that distinguishes an insulator is its resistivity;
insulators have higher resistivity than semiconductors or conductors.

Insulators are used in electrical equipment to support and separate

electrical conductors without allowing current through themselves. An insulating material
used in bulk to wrap electrical cables or other equipment is called insulation. The
term insulator is also used more specifically to refer to insulating supports used to
attach electric power distribution or transmission lines to utility poles and transmission
towers. They support the weight of the suspended wires without allowing the current to
flow through the tower to ground.

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Suspension insulator string (the vertical string of discs) on a 275 kV suspension pylon.

Suspended glass disc insulator unit used in suspension insulator strings for high voltage
transmission lines

Types of insulators
These are the common classes of insulator:[citation needed]

 Pin type insulator - As the name suggests, the pin type insulator is mounted on a
pin on the cross-arm on the pole. There is a groove on the upper end of the
insulator. The conductor passes through this groove and is tied to the insulator
with annealed wire of the same material as the conductor. Pin type insulators are
used for transmission and distribution of communications, and electric power at
voltages up to 33 kV. Insulators made for operating voltages between 33 kV and
69 kV tend to be very bulky and have become uneconomical in recent years.
 Post insulator - A type of insulator in the 1930s that is more compact than
traditional pin-type insulators and which has rapidly replaced many pin-type
insulators on lines up to 69 kV and in some configurations, can be made for
operation at up to 115 kV.
 Suspension insulator - For voltages greater than 33 kV, it is a usual practice to
use suspension type insulators, consisting of a number of glass or porcelain discs
connected in series by metal links in the form of a string. The conductor is
suspended at the bottom end of this string while the top end is secured to the cross-
arm of the tower. The number of disc units used depends on the voltage.
 Strain insulator - A dead end or anchor pole or tower is used where a straight
section of line ends, or angles off in another direction. These poles must withstand
the lateral (horizontal) tension of the long straight section of wire. To support this
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 lateral load, strain insulators are used. For low voltage lines (less than 11 kV),
shackle insulators are used as strain insulators. However, for high voltage
transmission lines, strings of cap-and-pin (suspension) insulators are used, attached
to the crossarm in a horizontal direction. When the tension load in lines is
exceedingly high, such as at long river spans, two or more strings are used in
parallel.

A three phase insulator used on distribution lines, typically 13.8 kV phase to

phase. The lines are held in a diamond pattern, multiple insulators used between
poles.

Shackle insulator - In early days, the shackle insulators were used as strain
insulators. But nowadays, they are frequently used for low voltage distribution lines.
Such insulators can be used either in a horizontal position or in a vertical position.
They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to the cross arm.

 Bushing - enables one or several conductors to pass through a partition such as a

wall or a tank, and insulates the conductors from it.[9]
 Line post insulator
 Station post insulator
 Cut-out
Suspension insulator
Pin-type insulators are unsuitable for voltages greater than about 69 kV line-to-line.
Higher transmission voltages use suspension insulator strings, which can be made for
any practical transmission voltage by adding insulator elements to the string.[10]
Higher voltage transmission lines usually use modular suspension insulator designs.
The wires are suspended from a 'string' of identical disc-shaped insulators that attach to

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each other with metal clevis pin or ball and socket links. The advantage of this design is
that insulator strings with different breakdown voltages, for use with different line
voltages, can be constructed by using different numbers of the basic units. Also, if one
of the insulator units in the string breaks, it can be replaced without discarding the entire
string.
designed to reduce the electric field at the point where the insulator is attached to the
line, to prevent corona discharge, which results in power losses.

String Efficiency :-
The ratio of voltage across the whole string to the product of number of discs and the
voltage across the disc nearest to the conductor is known as string efficiency.

How to improve the string efficiency?

By using long cross arm
By grading insulator
By using a guard ring

GUARD RING

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 Corona Effect
The phenomenon of ionisation of surrounding air around the conductor due to which
luminous glow with hissing noise is rise is known as the corona effect.

Corona effect mostly occurs at the sharp point of insulators.

Air acts as a dielectric medium between the transmission lines. In other words, it is an
insulator between the current carrying conductors. If the voltage induces between the
conductor is of alternating nature then the charging current flows between the
conductors. And this charging conductor increases the voltage of the transmission line.

The electric field intensity also increases because of the charging current.
If the intensity of the electric field is less than 30kV, the current induces between the
conductor is neglected. But if the voltage rise beyond the 30kv then the air between the
conductors becomes charge and they start conducting. The sparking occurs between
the conductors till the complete breakdown of the insulation properties of conductors
takes place.

Contents:- Coronaeffect

1. CoronaFormation
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2. Factors affecting corona
3. Disadvantages of corona discharge
4. Minimizing corona
5. Important points

CoronaFormation:
Air is not a perfect insulator, and even under normal conditions, the air contains many
free electrons and ions. When an electric field intensity establishes between the
conductors, these ions and free electrons experience forced upon them. Due to this
effect, the ions and free electrons get accelerated and moved in the opposite direction.

The charged particles during their motion collide with one another and also with the very
slow moving uncharged molecules. Thus, the number of charged particles goes on
increasing rapidly. This increase the conduction of air between the conductors and a
breakdown occurs. Thus, the arc establishes between the conductors.

Factors affectingcorona:
The following are the factors affecting the corona;

1. Effect of supply voltage – If the supply voltage is high corona loss is higher in the
lines. In low-voltage transmission lines, the corona is negligible, due to the insufficient
electric field to maintain ionization.
2. The condition of conductor surface – If the conductor is smooth, the electric field
will be more uniform as compared to the rough surface. The roughness of conductor is
caused by the deposition of dirt, dust and by scratching, etc. Thus, rough line
decreases the corona loss in the transmission lines.
3. Air Density Factor – The corona loss in inversely proportional to air density factor,
i.e., corona loss, increase with the decrease in density of air. Transmission lines
passing through a hilly area may have higher corona loss than that of similar
transmission lines in the plains because in a hilly area the density of air is low.
4. Effect of system voltage – Electric field intensity in the space around the conductors
depends on the potential difference between the conductors. If the potential difference
is high, electric field intensity is also very high, and hence corona is also high. Corona
loss, increase with the increase in the voltage.

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5. The spacing between conductors – If the distance between two conductors is much
more as compared to the diameter of the conductor than the corona loss occurs in the
conductor. If the distance between them is extended beyond certain limits, the
dielectric medium between them get decreases and hence the corona loss also
reduces.

Disadvantages ofcorona discharge:

The undesirable effects of the corona are:

1. The glow appear across the conductor which shows the power loss occur on it.
2. The audio noise occurs because of the corona effect which causes the power loss on
the conductor.
3. The vibration of conductor occurs because of corona effect.
4. The corona effect generates the ozone because of which the conductor becomes
corrosive.
5. The corona effect produces the non-sinusoidal signal thus the non-sinusoidal voltage
drops occur in the line.
6. The corona power loss reduces the efficency of the line.
7. The radio and TV interference occurs on the line because of corona effect.

Minimizingcorona:
Corona decreases the efficiency of transmission lines. Therefore, it is necessary to
minimize corona.The following factors may be considered to control corona:

1. Conductor diameter – For reducing corona loss, this method of increasing conductor
diameters is very effective.Diameters of conductors can be increased by using hollow
conductors and by using steel-cored aluminum conductors(ACSR) conductors.
2. The voltage of the line – Voltage of transmission lines is fixed by economic
considerations. To increase the disruptive voltage the spacing of the conductors is to
be increased, but this method has some limitations.
3. Spacing between conductors – If the space between conductors increases, then the
voltage drops between them also increases due to increase in inductive reactance.

Important points:

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 Disruptive voltage is the minimum voltage at which the breakdown of air occurs and
corona starts.
 Visual critical voltage is the minimum voltage at which visible corona begins.

Static VARcompensator
A static VAR compensator is a set of electrical devices for providing fast-
acting reactive power on high-voltage electricity transmission networks.[1][2] SVCs are
part of the Flexible AC transmission system [3][4] device family, regulating voltage, power
factor, harmonics and stabilizing the system. A static VAR compensator has no
significant moving parts (other than internal switchgear).
The SVC is an automated impedance matching device, designed to bring the system
closer to unity power factor. SVCs are used in two main situations:

 Connected to the power system, to regulate the transmission voltage ("Transmission

SVC")
 Connected near large industrial loads, to improve power quality ("Industrial SVC")

Principle[edit]
Typically, an SVC comprises one or more banks of fixed or switched
shunt capacitors or reactors, of which at least one bank is switched by thyristors.
Elements which may be used to make an SVC typically include:

 Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR), where the reactor may be air- or iron-cored
 Thyristor switched capacitor (TSC)
 Harmonic filter(s)
 Mechanically switched capacitors or reactors (switched by a circuit breaker)

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One-line diagram of a typical SVC configuration; here employing a thyristor controlled
reactor, a thyristor switched capacitor, a harmonic filter, a mechanically switched
capacitor and a mechanically switched reactor

By means of phase angle modulation switched by the thyristors, the reactor may be
variably switched into the circuit and so provide a continuously variable VARinjection (or
absorption) to the electrical network.[2] In this configuration, coarse voltage control is
provided by the capacitors; the thyristor-controlled reactor is to provide smooth control.
Smoother control and more flexibility can be provided with thyristor-controlled capacitor
switching.[7]
Connection
Generally, static VAR compensation is not done at line voltage; a bank
of transformers steps the transmission voltage (for example, 230 kV) down to a much
lower level (for example, 9.0 kV).[5] This reduces the size and number of components

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needed in the SVC, although the conductors must be very large to handle the high
currents associated with the lower voltage

Thyristor Controlled Reactor(TCR), shown with Delta connection

Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC), shown with Delta connection

The thyristors are electronically controlled. Thyristors, like all semiconductors, generate
heat and deionized water is commonly used to cool them.[5]

Advantages
They are, in general, cheaper, higher-capacity, faster and more reliable than dynamic
compensation schemes such as synchronous condensers.[7] However, static VAR
compensators are more expensive than mechanically switched capacitors, so many
system operators use a combination of the two technologies (sometimes in the same
installation), using the static VAR compensator to provide support for fast changes and
the mechanically switched capacitors to provide steady-state VARs.

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Conclusion
This summer internship helped me to gain my
knowledge about the substation.(400/220kv),
equipment and as well as the procedure of the work
with those equipment.

This is a EHV (extra High Voltage) substation. From

this I learned all the equipment are controlled by
manually or by automation system from control
room. I also learned about value of the safety and
the various types of protections for every equipment.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. CircuitGlobe.com
2. Wikipedia.com
3. electrical4u.com
4. google.com
5. elprocus.com
6. peguru.com
7. CLWadwa
8. J.B Gupta

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