Basic Plant Cycle

Basic Plant Cycle

 In this section, we will discuss the individual
systems that combine to form the basic
Power Plant cycle.
Basic Plant Cycle
 Upon completion of this section, you will be
able to perform the following:

 Page 1.
Basic Plant Cycle
Basic Plant Cycle
 The term “closed-loop system” indicates that the
same water is converted to steam and condensed for
reuse.
 As an example, use a 100-gallon water tank, with a
leak rate of 1 gallon of water per hour. Each hour,
1 gallon of water must be added to the tank to
maintain its capacity at 100 gallons. A closed-loop
system is very similar to our 100-gallon tank.
System Losses
 Soot blowing
 Drains and warming lines
 Boiler blowdown
 Sample line drains
 Boiler stack heat
 Turbine condenser latent heat of
vaporization
System Losses
 Of the losses listed above, heat loss out the
boiler stack has the greatest affect on boiler
efficiency, but the greatest loss in most Power
Plants is the latent heat of vaporization that
is lost in the turbine condenser.

 Can you think of others?

Plant Cycle Major Components
and Systems
Plant Cycle Major Components
and Systems
 Condenser and hotwell
 Boiler feedwater system
 Boiler water/steam cycle
Plant Cycle Major Components
and Systems
 Electrical generation
 Condensate system
 Turbine steam system
Condenser and Hotwell
 The condenser is a shell-and-tube type heat
exchanger. It creates a low-pressure area into
which turbine steam may exhaust and
condense. Steam is condensed, collected in
the hotwell, and pumped (recirculated) back
through the system.
Condenser and Hotwell
Condensate System
 The condensate system performs one or
more of the three basic functions.

 Heating
 Deaerating
 Cleaning
Condensate System
Heating
 The feedwater heater is one of the basic
components in many condensate systems.
Condensate systems may have one or more
of these, depending on size and design.
Cleaning
 In-line condensate polishers are located in
many condensate systems. Polishers are used
to clean condensate by removing harmful
minerals.
Deaerating
 Deaeration, the removal of air and non-
condensable gases from the condensate, is
performed in the deaerator. The deaerator is
an open-type heater located near what is
considered to be the end of the condensate
system.
Boiler Feedwater System
 Although the boiler feedwater system is given
a different name, the same water that was
pumped through the condensate system is
pumped through the feedwater system. The
water is still condensate; however, it is now to
be supplied (pumped) to the boiler and
renamed “boiler feedwater.
 To Economizer

Economizer
Inlet
NRV

HP Heater 8
Outlet
(3-Way Valve)
Deaerator

HP Heater 8

HP Heater 8
Inlet
(3-Way Valve)
Feedwater
Storage Tank

HP Heater 7
Outlet
(3-way Valve)

HP Heater 7

Booster Pump

Motor M M M HP Heater 6

Boiler Feed Pump HP Heater 6

Inlet
(3-Way Valve)

Feed
Regulating
Valve
(2)
Boiler Feedwater System
 Fluid entering the deaerating heater is
condensate and steam, and the fluid stored in
the deaerator storage tank is condensate. The
feedwater system begins at this point.
Boiler Feedwater System
 In systems that use feedwater heaters in the
condensate and feedwater systems, the
heaters in the feedwater system are referred
to as high-pressure heaters.
Boiler Feedwater System
 As an example, condensate pressure usually
ranges between 150 and 450 psig, while the
feedwater system pressure ranges between
900 and 5000 psig.
Boiler Water Cycle
 Feedwater enters the boiler at the economizer
in boilers that have an economizer. Not all
boilers have economizers, and in those that
do not, feedwater enters the boiler at the
boiler steam drum. The economizer is
located in the flue gas path of the boiler and
performs two important functions.
Boiler Water Cycle
 First, the water is heated by the thermal
energy of the flue gas before the gas exits the
boiler.

 Secondly, the flue gas temperature is lowered,

reducing the effect on the environment.
Boiler Water Cycle
Boiler Steam System
 After steam and water are mechanically
separated, the steam is routed out the top of
the drum and directed to the superheater
sections of the boiler, with the first section
being the primary superheater.
Boiler Steam System
 Steam is directed from the primary
superheater to the secondary superheater
where additional temperature and thermal
energy are added to the steam. Steam at
proper temperature and pressure is directed
to the steam distribution system and turbine
through the main steam lines.
Boiler Steam System
Turbine Steam System
 Steam flows from the boiler to a steam
distribution header that in turn, supplies high-
pressure steam to the turbines and to
processes within the Power Plant. Inside the
turbine, the thermal energy contained in the
steam is converted into mechanical energy to
drive the turbine and generator. As steam
passes through the turbine, its temperature
and pressure are greatly reduced.
Turbine Steam System
Turbine Steam System
Electrical Generation
 Located at the end and connected to the
turbine is the generator. The mechanical
energy that rotates the turbine is also turning
the generator. The generator is basically a
large electromagnet. It receives an outside
source of current from the excitation system.
By varying the excitation and the steam flow
to the turbine electrical output of the
generator is controlled.
Electrical Generation
 Increasing the excitation to the generator increases
the strength of the generator field, which requires
an increase in steam flow to drive the turbine and
generator. As the generator rotor turns, electron
flow occurs in the stator. Electrons (electricity) flow
from the generator stator to the Power Plant
electrical distribution system. The electrical energy
distributed to the system is the result of all the
energy conversions that occurred during the Power
Plant operation.
Power Plant Heat Balance
 Btu (British Thermal Unit) – the amount
of energy required to increase the
temperature of one pound of water 1F at
atmospheric pressure at sea level.
 Enthalpy – (Btu/lb) the total heat content
of one pound of a substance.
Power Plant Heat Balance
 First Law of Thermodynamics – energy
cannot be created or destroyed, only
converted from one form to another.
 Latent Heat of Vaporization – the amount
of heat that must be transferred to a
substance to change it from a liquid to a gas.
Power Plant Heat Balance
 Saturation – the amount of heat energy a
substance can contain at a given phase.

 Second Law of Thermodynamics – heat

energy by itself cannot pass from a lower to a
higher temperature body.
Power Plant Heat Balance
 Specific Heat – the amount of heat required
to raise the temperature of a specific amount
of material by a specified number of degrees.

 Specific Volume – the space occupied by

one pound of material.
Power Plant Heat Balance
 Sub cooled – temperature that is less than
the saturation temperature. by one pound of
material.
Properties of Steam and Water
 Solid (ice) – water below 32 F at
atmospheric pressure.
 Liquid – water between 32 F and 212 F at
atmospheric pressure.
 Vapor (Steam) – water above 212 F at
atmospheric pressure.
Specific Heat
 Specific heat, when measured in BTUs, is the
amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of one pound of a substance 1
degree Fahrenheit. Specific heat is measured
in units of BTUs per pound per degree
Fahrenheit (Btu/lb/F).
Specific Heat
 A formula for determining the amount of
heat needed to raise a specific amount of
water a specific number of degrees would be
as follows: (T = temperature and H =
heat)

Specific Heat
 Use this formula to find the amount of heat
needed to change 20 pounds of water from
50F to 75F.
Specific Volume
 Specific volume is the measurement of the
amount of space occupied by one pound of a
substance. Specific volume is measured in
cubic feet per pound (ft3/lb). A cube that is
three inches square is equal to the amount of
space that one pound of water occupies. The
volume of the water in the cube would be
equal to approximately 0.016 ft3.
Enthalpy
 Enthalpy is the sum of the total heat content
of one pound of a substance, shown as
Btu/lb. The enthalpy of water can be
calculated if the temperature and pressure of
the water are known, but these calculations
are time consuming.
Three States of Water
 Solid (ice) - Water below 32 F at
atmospheric pressure.
 Liquid - Water between 32 and 212 F at
atmospheric pressure.
 Gas (steam) - Water vapor at 212 F and
atmospheric pressure.
Latent Heat of Vaporization
 Latent heat is the amount of heat that must
be transferred to a substance to change it
from a liquid state to a gas state. When water
at atmospheric pressure boils, it changes state
from water at 212F to steam at 212F.
The temperature remains the same.
Latent Heat of Vaporization
Latent Heat of Fusion
 The latent heat of fusion is the amount of
heat that must be transferred to a substance
to change it from a solid state to a liquid
state. When ice melts, it changes state from
ice at 32F, to water at 32F. The
temperature remains the same.
Steam Tables
 Table 1 - Saturated Steam: Temperature Table –
Gives the values for specific volume, enthalpy, and
entropy in relation to temperature.

 Table 2 - Saturated Steam: Pressure Table –

Gives the values for specific volume, enthalpy and
entropy in relation to pressure.

 Table 3 - Superheated Steam – Gives the values

for superheated steam relative to temperature and
pressure.
Steam Tables
The first two tables contain values of properties for
saturated fluids, both water and steam. Table 1 is
called “Saturated Steam: Temperature Table”
and Table 2 is “Saturated Steam: Pressure
Table.” Both tables contain the same information,
however, the difference being Table 1 is used if you
know the saturated fluid temperature and Table 2 is
used if pressure is the known value.
Superheated Steam Tables
Table 3 gives the properties of superheated
steam and repeats the properties of saturated
water and saturated steam presented in Tables
1 and 2.
STEAM TABLE EXAMPLE –
ONE
 Assume that a pump discharges water at 110F and
270 psia. Since both temperature and pressure of
the water are known, either saturated steam table
can be used to find the properties of the water at
the discharge of the pump.

Table 1

Table 2
STEAM TABLE EXAMPLE –
TWO
Table 3 Enthalpy
 Using a hypothetical boiler to demonstrate
use of Table 3, find the enthalpy of steam at
a given pressure and temperature. Boiler
pressure is 900 psia and superheater outlet
temperature is 900F.
Table 3 Degrees Superheat
 The degrees of superheat contained in the
steam is determined by the temperature listed
in the column under 900F that coincides with
the SH row for 900 psia. The degrees of
superheat are 368.05. F.
STEAM TABLES EXERCISES
Heat Transfer
 Heat transfer is the transmission of heat
energy. Usually thought of as the flow of
heat energy from one substance to another,
heat transfer plays a central role in most
energy conversion processes.
Conduction
 The internal energy of substance depends
upon molecular motion within the substance.
As the temperature of a substance increases,
the molecular motion increased and thus the
internal energy increases. Heat is transferred
by conduction from molecule to molecule
within a substance or between touching
substances.
Conduction
Conduction
The basic relationship for heat transfer by
conduction through a wall can be written as
follows:
Q = kA(T1 – T2 )

 Q = the rate of heat transfer (BTU/hr)

 k = thermal conductivity (BTU/hr-ft-F)
 w = wall thickness (ft)
Conduction
 Often the equation for heat transfer by
conduction is written in a slightly different
form than previously shown. The quantity
k/x is replaced with a new parameter, U, the
heat transfer coefficient. In this case, the
equation becomes

 Q = UAT
Conduction
 q= the rate of heat transfer (BTU/hr)
 U= the overall heat transfer coefficient
(BTU/hr-ft-F)
 A= the surface area of heat transfer (ft2)
 T = temperature difference (F)
Convection
 Convection is the transfer of heat by motion
and mixing of a fluid. It usually occurs
between a solid and a fluid (gas or liquid) by a
combination of molecular conduction and
fluid motion.
Convection
Radiation
Radiation
 Radiant heat transfer, unlike conduction or
convection, requires no intervening medium,
either solid or fluid. Radiant heat transfer is,
therefore, the only way to transfer heat
energy through a vacuum. Examples of
radiant heat transfer are the transmission of
the sun’s heat to the earth, heat that radiates
from a fireplace, or infrared heaters
Combustion Theory
 Combustion is defined as the rapid chemical
combination of oxygen with the combustible
elements of a fuel. Combustible elements are
those elements that combine with oxygen.
The three basic elements needed for
combustion are fuel, oxygen, and heat.
Combustion Theory
Requirements for Complete
Combustion
 Time

 Temperature

 Turbulence
Fuel Characteristics
 The fuel supplies carbon (C), hydrogen (H),
and sulfur (8), which combine with oxygen to
produce heat.
Fuel Characteristics
 The fuel supplies carbon (C), hydrogen (H),
and sulfur (8), which combine with oxygen to
produce heat.
 Coal is pulverized
 Natural gas requires no special preparation
Combustion Air

 Enough air must be supplied to provide all

the oxygen needed for complete combustion.
The theoretical amount of air required to
burn a fuel is determined by combustion
calculations. The theoretical amount of air,
referred to as theoretical air or stoichiometric
air is the amount required to burn all the fuel
when the two are mixed perfectly
Combustion Air

 Coal 10 - 40%
 Oil 8 - 15%
 Natural gas 5 - 10%
Combustion Air
 In a gas turbine, the fuel is mixed with compressed
air in the combustion chamber and delivered at a
high pressure to the combustors. Only a relatively
small fraction of the air is supplied to the
combustor to provide oxygen for combustion in
comparison to a conventional boiler, however. The
remaining air is used for cooling the combustors
and turbine blading. The air used for combustion
enters the combustion zone through metering holes
that are sized to admit the proper amount of air for
complete combustion. The large amount of excess
air used in gas turbines tends to reduce their
efficiency.
Combustion Air

 Fortunately, when a gas turbine is used in a

combined cycle with a HRSG, it is possible to
recover much of the heat in the exhaust gas.
Combustion Air
Combustion Air
 One of the most important "combustion products,"
oxygen, is not really a combustion product because
it does not enter into the chemical reactions of
combustion. If a fuel were burned completely with
the theoretical air, there would be no oxygen in the
products of combustion. In real combustion
processes, more air is supplied to the combustion
process than is used to burn the fuel. As a result,
there is oxygen in the products of combustion (the
flue gas).
Combustion Air

 If fuel is not burned completely, additional

products of combustion are:
 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
 Unburned Fuel
 Carbon Particles
Combustion Air

 Formation of CO and unburned fuel can

result from:
 The fuel not being properly mixed with air
 The temperature being too low to allow fuel
to burn completely
 The fuel particles being too large to burn
(inadequate mixing)
Undesirable Products of
Combustion
 Sulfur Oxides
 NOx
 Unburned Fuel
 Carbon Monoxide
 Fly Ash
Heating Value of Fuel
 The heating value of fuel is a parameter that
is necessary to determine how much fuel
must be burned to produce a given amount
of heat for power or steam. The heating
values of fuels are usually determined by
testing.
Energy Losses
 In an ideal situation, all the chemical energy
in fuel would be converted into electrical
energy. However, this does not happen since
a great deal of energy is lost in the Power
plant cycle. The amount of electrical energy
that is produced by a Power Plant is much
less than the amount of chemical energy used
to produce it
Energy Losses
 Some major ways in which energy escapes a
Power Plant are as follows:

 Flue Gas
 Circulating Water
 Incomplete combustion
 Heat loss to environment
Energy Losses
 Flue Gas

 Circulating Water

 Incomplete Combustion

 Incomplete Combustion
Heat Rate
 The British thermal unit (Btu) is defined as “the
heat required to raise the temperature of 1
pound of water by 1 degree Fahrenheit”.


 Heat rate is a method of showing the performance

of a Power Plant. Power Plants maintain a
continuous record of heat rate as a measure of
efficiency of operation Incomplete Combustion
Heat Rate
 Heat Rate Calculations

 The gross heat rate is usually calculated by

the following formula:


 GHR = (Quantity of Fuel x Heating

Value)/(Generation x Time)

Heat Rate
 Heat Rate Calculations

 The gross heat rate is usually calculated by

the following formula:


 GHR = (Quantity of Fuel x Heating

Value)/(Generation x Time)
