The Scientific Method

Prof. Dr. Ece KONAÇ

Department of Medical Biology
 These images all show an aspect of science, but a complete view
of science is more than any particular instance.

What is Science? • Science is both a body of knowledge

The Scientific Method and a process
• Science is exciting
• Science is useful
• Science is ongoing
• Science is a global human endeavor
 What is Science?
The goal of science is to understand natural
phenomena

2 types of science:
• Discovery science
• Hypothesis-based science

Four-eyed butterfly fish

 Discovery Science
Describes nature
Uses inductive reasoning
Observations used to infer conclusions
(but no complete certainty as to validity)
e.g. This red jellybean tastes like cherry.
Thus, all red jellybeans taste like cherry.

= ?
 Hypothesis-Based Science
Uses deductive reasoning

Previously-known premises used to

form conclusions (as long as
premises are correct, conclusion
will be too)
e.g. Dogs are mammals.
All mammals have hair or fur.
Thus, all dogs have hair or fur.
 The Scientific
Method involves a
series of steps that
are used to
investigate a
natural
occurrence.
Basic Elements of the Scientific Method

• Empiricism: the notion that enquiry is

conducted through observation and
knowledge verified through evidence
• Determinism: the notion that events occur
according to regular laws and causes.
The goal of research is to discover these
• Scepticism: the notion that any proposition
is open to analysis and critique
 Critical Thinking
Using data and facts to
make inferences, draw
conclusions, solve
problems, etc.

Should be unbiased
thought
 Scientific Method
1. Choose a question to investigate
2. Identify a hypothesis related to the question
3. Make testable predictions in the hypothesis
4. Design an experiment to answer hypothesis
question
5. Collect data in experiment
6. Determine results and assess their validity
7. Determine if results support or refute your
hypothesis

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 Problem/Question
Observation/Research
Formulate a Hypothesis
Experiment
Collect and Analyze Results
Conclusion
Communicate the Results
 Steps of the
Scientific Method
1. Problem/Question: Develop a
question or problem that can
be solved through
experimentation.
 Steps of the
Scientific Method
2. Observation/Research: Make
observations and research
your topic of interest.
 Gathered through your senses
 A scientist notices something in
their natural world
 The Scientific Method
1. Suspicion that a factor (exposure) may
influence occurrence of disease or a noted
health outcome

- Observations in clinical practice

- Examination of disease/outcome patterns
- Do subpopulations have higher or lower
rates?
- Are disease rates increased in the
presence of certain factors?
- Observations in laboratory research
- Theoretical speculation
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 The Scientific Method
2. Identify variables you are interested in:
• Exposure - (risk factor, protective factor,
predictor variable, treatment)
• Outcome - (disease, event)

3. Formulate a specific hypothesis

- Frame a hypothesis which seeks to answer
a specific question about the relationship
between an exposure and an outcome

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 Basic Question in Research

Are exposure and disease/outcome

linked?
Is there an association between them?

Exposure Disease / Health

Outcome
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 Next Step: Design Study

• Study Designs …(not exhaustive)

– Case series
– Cross-sectional
– Case-control
– Cohort
– Randomized controlled clinical trial

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 Association

• From the results of your study, does a

statistical relationship exist between
two or more events, characteristics, or
other variables

• Is there a statistical relationship, or

association, between exposure and
disease/outcome?

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 Statistical Association

The degree to which the rate of disease

or outcome in persons with a specific
exposure is either higher or lower than the
rate of disease or outcome among those
without that exposure.

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 The Scientific Method

Assess validity of association

- Does the observed association really

exist?
- Is the association valid?
- Are there alternative explanations for the
association?
- Chance
- Bias
- Confounding 19
 Hypotheses
Shape and guide a research study in
terms of:

• identification of study sample size

• what issues should be involved in
data collection
• the proper analysis of the data
• data interpretation
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 Hypothesis Formulation

--- Formulate a hypothesis

--- Frame the hypothesis in

a format that is testable

--- Test the hypothesis

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 Steps of the
Scientific Method
3. Formulate a Hypothesis:
Predict a possible answer to
the problem or question.
 A suggested solution to the
problem.
 Must be testable
 Sometimes written as If…Then…
statements
 Predicts an outcome
 Formulating a Hypothesis

Proposes the answer to a question about an

observation

e.g. Exposure to fertilizer increases

reproduction of bean plants
 A Good Hypothesis …

Must be testable and falsifiable

A hypothesis can be falsified but can never be proven
true: evidence can only support

Scientific knowledge is ever expanding as new

methodologies are applied to old questions,
etc.
 Steps of the
Scientific Method
4. Experiment: Develop and
follow a procedure.
Include a detailed materials list.
The outcome must be
measurable (quantifiable).
 A procedure to test the
hypothesis.
 Testing a Hypothesis
Scientific experiment
(either falsifies or supports a hypothesis)

• Make predictions
• Determine variables
• Design an experimental procedure
• Carry out procedure
 Making Predictions
Based on an experiment designed to test a
hypothesis

If/then statements:
“If the hypothesis is true, then the results of the
experiment will be …”
e.g. If exposure to fertilizer increases reproduction
of bean plants, then the number of pods per
plant should increase in plants exposed to
fertilizer compared with control plants.
 If results match prediction, hypothesis is
supported

If not, the hypothesis is falsified

Knowledge of process has been increased

either way, regardless of findings
 Steps of the
Scientific Method
5. Collect and Analyze Results:
Modify the procedure if
needed.
Confirm the results by retesting.
Include tables, graphs, and
photographs.
 Presenting & Analyzing Results
Analysis:
Simple to advanced statistics 9
8
7
6
5
4

Presentation: 3
2
1

Tables and/or figures 0

1 2 3 4 5

• Show relationships between

independent and dependent 12

10

variables 8

Distance
6

• Bar graphs vs. line graphs 4

0
0 1 2 3 4
Time
 Steps of the
Scientific Method
6. Conclusion: Include a
statement that accepts or
rejects the hypothesis.
Make recommendations for
further study and possible
improvements to the
procedure.
 Steps of the
Scientific Method
7. Communicate the Results: Be
prepared to present the project
to an audience.
Expect questions from the
audience.
Do you know the difference
between the independent
and dependent variables?
 Determining Variables
Factor, trait, or condition that can exist in
different amounts or types

• The factor that is changed is

known as the independent
variable.
• The factor that is measured or
observed is called the dependent
variable.
 Independent variable

The variable of interest

Is deliberately manipulated (changed) The

independent, or manipulated variable, is a
factor that’s intentionally varied by the
experimenter.
Only one is usually chosen
(need to know which factor is affecting the
dependent variable)
 Dependent variable

Is measured or observed during an

experiment
The dependent, or responding variable, is
the factor that may change as a result of
changes made in the independent
variable.
Value is caused by and depends on the
value of the independent variable
 Control variable
Is kept constant
(so that will not affect outcome of experiment) In a
scientific experiment, the control is the group that
serves as the standard of comparison.
The control group may be a “no treatment" or an
“experimenter selected” group.
The control group is exposed to the same conditions
as the experimental group, except for the variable
being tested.
All experiments should have a control group.
 e.g. Exposure to fertilizer increases
reproduction of bean plants

Independent: fertilizer

Dependent: number of bean pods

Control: Other things that would affect bean

reproduction e.g. amount of water,
temperature, amount of light, etc.
What is the Purpose of a
Control?

• Controls are NOT being

tested
• Controls are used for
COMPARISON
 Designing a Procedure

Methodology for an experiment

Quantitative (counts/measurements) methods

usually better than qualitative (descriptive)
(allows re-testing of hypothesis by same or others)
 Trials

Trials refer to replicate

groups that are exposed
to the same conditions
in an experiment.
 Replication
Procedure is repeated several times to see if
results are consistent

Gives an idea of how much variation is

present

Results from different trials are averaged

 Sample Size
Larger sample size = greater confidence

Sampling Error
Mean & standard deviations of sample differ
from that of population from which taken

Larger sample size = lower sampling error