(2019.l) STT-PLN - 01 Ac System Review

Ridha Yasser, Ph.D.
C11041301 – SEMESTER GANJIL 2019/2020

Single Phase and Three Phase Systems:
Active and reactive power

Power factor correction
Basic concepts of three phase circuits
C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

A multiplication of instantaneous voltage with
instantaneous current at phase difference :
v(t )  Vm cos(t )
i(t )  I m cos(t   )
p(t )  Vm I m cos(t ) cos(t   )

Expression results from integrating
instantaneous power over a single cycle:
1
P  Vm I m cos(t ) cos(t   )
2
In R.M.S. terms, simplifies to:
P  VI cos( )

v(t) = 2.25 cos(2π · 60t) Volt
𝜋
i(t) = 3 cos(2π · 60t – ) Ampere
3
Find the average power (Watts) over a cycle.

Solution:
1 𝜋 1
P = V I cos(θ) = (2.25 V) (3 A) cos( ) = (6.75) (0.5) = 1.6875 W
2 3 2

Load Convention
Active power absorbed by the load is positive.

Reactive power can be positive or negative.
v(t) = Vm cos(ωt) = Vm cos(ωt + δ)
i(t) = Im cos(ωt + β)
𝑄
Power factor angle: θ = (δ – β) = tan -1 ( )
𝑃
Active power: P = V I cos θ
Reactive power: Q = V I sin θ
Apparent power: S = V I* = P + jQ
P>0 and Q>0 P>0 and Q<0 P<0 and Q>0 P<0 and Q<0
I lags V I leads V I lags V I leads V

lagging pf leading pf lagging pf leading pf
inductive load capacitive load inductive load capacitive load
P absorbed by load P absorbed by load P delivered by load P delivered by load
Q absorbed by load Q delivered by load Q absorbed by load Q delivered by load
C I V I L
(LEADS)
Given: Draw the power triangle:
𝜋
v(t) = 1.5 cos(2π · 60t + ) Volt
6
2𝜋
i(t) = 2 cos(2π · 60t – ) Ampere
3
𝜋 2𝜋 5𝜋
Power factor angle: θ = (δ – β) = ( + )= = 150
6 3 6
5𝜋
Active power: P = V I cos θ = 1.5 cos ( ) = - 1.29 W
6
5𝜋
Reactive power: Q = V I sin θ = 1.5 sin ( ) = 0.75 VAR
6
Apparent power: S = 𝑃2 + 𝑄2 = 1.292 + 0.752 = 1.49 VA

Given: V = 2.77∠ 15° Volt I = 1.14 ∠ -27° Ampere
θ = (δ – β) = (15° - (-27°)) = 42° I* = 1.14 ∠ +27° Ampere

Calculate active and reactive power and power factor
S = V I* = (2.77 ∠ 15°) (1.14 ∠ +27°) = 3.16 ∠ 42° VA

= 2.35 + j 2.11 VA = P + j Q VA
P = 2.35 Watt
Q = 2.11 VAR
pf = cos θ = cos(42°) = 0.743 , lagging
Absorbed by resistive
load
Always positive when

V and I are in phase
Average is nonzero
Periodic at double
frequency
Absorbed or generated
by reactive load
Changes sign
Average is zero
Periodic at double
frequency

𝜋
Given: v(t) = 3 cos(2π · 60t) Volt i(t) = 1.14 cos(2π · 60t – ) Ampere
4
Find phasor expressions for voltage, current, and complex power.

V = 3 ∠ 0° Volt I = 1.14 ∠ 45° Ampere
θ = (δ – β) = (0° – 45°) = –45° I* = 1.14 ∠ –45 ° Ampere
S = V I* = (3 ∠ 0°) (1.14 ∠ –45°) = 3.42 ∠ –45° VA

= 2.15 – j 2.15 VA
= P + j Q VA
P = 2.15 Watt Q = – 2.15 VAR
pf = cos θ = cos(–45°) = 0.707 , leading
Given: V = 5 ∠ 30° Volt I = 2 ∠ –45° Ampere
Calculate active, reactive and apparent power
Solution 1: P = V I cos(δ – β) = 10 cos(75°) = 2.59 Watt

Q = V I sin(δ – β) = 10 sin(75°) = 9.66 VAr
S = V I ∠ (δ – β) = 10 ∠ 75° = 2.59 + j 9.66 VA
Solution 2:
S = V I* = (5 ∠ 30°) (2 ∠ +45°) = 10 ∠ 75° VA
= 2.59 + j 9.66 VA
= P + j 9.66 VA
P = 2.59 Watt Q = 9.66 VAr
pf = cos θ = cos(75°) = 0.259 lagging

Two connection schemes:
“Wye” or “Y” connection
“Delta” or “” connection

“Wye” connection joins neutrals of each phase at a common junction.

“Delta” connection has no neutral, and each vertex forms a bus.

Wye connected Delta connected

A three-phase source is balanced when each leg
produces equal magnitude voltage, with phase
difference between any two phases.
A three-phase load must have the identical

impedances on each phase to be balanced.
By convention, the three phases are designated a, b, and c.
If a phase is chosen as reference, then the balanced line-to-

neutral voltages in a wye-connected generator will be:
Ean = Eln ∠ 0° V
Ebn = Eln ∠ -120° V
Ebn = Eln ∠ +120° V

A system of three unbalanced phasors can be resolved in the following three symmetrical
components:
• Positive Sequence: A balanced three-phase system with the same phase sequence as the original
sequence.
• Negative sequence: A balanced three-phase system with the opposite phase sequence as the original
sequence.
• Zero Sequence: Three phasors that are equal in magnitude and phase.
Unbalanced Positive Negative Zero

Load Sequence Sequence Sequence
e.g., the positive, negative and zero sequence components of phase-a are denoted by Va1, Va2
and Va0 respectively
Ecn
Ean
Ebn
This diagram shows a.b.c. or positive sequence, in which

Ean leads Ebn by 120, and Ebn leads Ecn by 120.
Eb
n
Ean
Ec
n
In this alternative arrangement, called a.c.b. or negative

sequence, Ean leads Ecn by 120, and Ecn leads Ebn by 120.
In a wye-connected generator, line-to-line voltages can be
calculated from line-to-neutral voltages.
The line-to-line voltages are greater in magnitude by a factor
of 3, and they lead the line-to-neutral voltages by 30º:
El l  3El n 30

Balanced line-to-line and line-to-neutral voltages:
Find the positive sequence line-to-line voltages in the balanced wye-
connected generator if the line-to-neutral voltages have a magnitude
of 12 kV, and phase a is the reference.
Solution: Ell = √3 Eln ∠ +30° kV

= 20.8 ∠ +30° kV
Eab = 20.8 ∠ 30° kV
Ebc = 20.8 ∠ -90° kV
Eca = 20.8 ∠ 150° kV
Line currents in a three-phase system can be calculated from
phase voltages and impedances.
For a balanced system with a wye-connected load, the line

current equation is:
El n
IY 
ZY

The illustration shows
balanced load currents
in a wye-connected
load:

Balanced load currents in
a delta-connected system
are obtained from:
El l
I 
Z

Given a wye-connected load of impedance ZY=1030° and
balanced positive sequence source with Ean=14.40°kV, find
the load currents.
Solution: El n
IY 
ZY
Ean 14.40 kV
IA    1.4430 kA
ZY 1030 
Ebn 14.4120 kV
IB    1.44150 kA
ZY 1030 
Ecn 14.4120 kV
IC    1.4490 kA
ZY 1030 

The practice of improving a lagging power factor by installing
capacitors in parallel with an inductive load is called power
factor correction.
Inductive load = lagging power factor
Capacitive load = leading power factor
It is desirable to operate with power factor close to unity for
better efficiency and voltage regulation.

P  Ql  Qc
To improve the Power Factor:
Qc Parallel a Capacitor to the
P  Ql Inductor
<
Qc
S P – constant
Ql  Qc  Q Q – decrease
 
P

Given:
A single-phase source which delivers 80 kW to a load at 0.7 pf lagging.
If the source voltage is 480 V, calculate the current required by this
load.
Solution: P  VI  pf  80 kW
P 80 kW
S  VI    114 kVA
pf 0.7
Q  (S2  P 2 )  81.6 kvar
power factor angle  cos -1 (0.7)  45.6
S 114 kVA
I   238 A
V 480 V

Given:
Determine the capacitive reactance needed to reduce the power factor to 0.9
lagging in the previous example.
Solution (students to verify calculations as an exercise):

Before pf correction: After pf correction: Net XC needed:
X C  1.55 
R  2.88  R  2.88 
X L  2.94  X L  1.39 

In this typical three phase system, the generator has three voltage
sources with equal magnitude and phase difference, and it delivers
power to a balanced wye connected load.
Voltages applied to the load in a balanced
three-phase system are:
Van  V0
Vbn  V  120
Vcn  V  240

Line voltage has a magnitude of 3 times phase voltage, and it leads
the corresponding phase voltage by 30.
Line-to-line voltages are calculated as follows:
Vab  Van  Vbn  3Van30  3V30

Vbc  Vbn  Vcn  3Vbn30  3V  90
Vca  Vcn  Van  3Vcn 30  3V  210

A three phase power system consists of a wye connected generator
connected to a balanced wye connected load of impedance ZL=1030 °
per phase and a terminal load voltage of 3.2 kV. Neglecting feeder
impedance, determine line current supplied by the generator.
Solution: Select phase a as reference.
Van (3200 / 3 )0V

I a  I an    184.8  30A
ZL 1030
I b  184.8  150A
I c  184.890A

Semester Ganjil 2017 / 2018
Ridha Yasser, Ph.D.
C11041301 – TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI
44
2003 IEEE/PES
Transmission and Distribution Conference & Exposition
Presented by
Jack Bateman, P.E.
Oncor
September 9, 2003

46
Apparent Power
Volt - Ampere ( VA )
Reactive Power
Volt - Ampere Reactive
(VAR )
θ V = Voltage
Active Power
( WATTS )
θ
I = Current
Apparent Power = Voltage * Current
Apparent Power = Active Power + Reactive Power

Reactive Power
θ
Active Power
Apparent Power = V * I = Active Power + Reactive Power
Active Power = Apparent Power Cos θ

*
Active Power = Apparent Power Power Factor
*
Reactive Power = Apparent Power
* Sin θ
Power Factor = Cos θ = Active Power / Apparent Power
C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 47
TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI
48
V I cos θ = │I│2 R V I sin θ = │I│2 X

Where R is Resistance Where X is Reactance
Does Work Does No Work
Energy Converted to Heat, Light, Or Work No Energy Converted, No Heat Generated
Energy Periodically Stored In the Magnetic

Energy Is Consumed, No Energy Storage Field of an Inductor or the Electric Field of a
Capacitor, then Discharges Back to the
System -- No Energy Is Lost
The Total Active Power Generated Must

Equal Total Active Power Consumed The Total Reactive Power Produced Must
Equal the Total Reactive Power Required

49
VARs are supplied by passing current through a

capacitance
VARs are delivered by passing current through an

inductance
VARs are supplied by - generators, line charging,

capacitors, other specialized equipment
VARs are delivered to - reactors, T&D lines, induction

motors
A lot of engineers call the reactive
component of current and the Reactive Power Loss
reactive component of apparent
power “ imaginary “. 2
I X
Imaginary current or power couldn’t

possibly affect the real world
power system, could it ?
It sure does, “ imaginary “ is just a

bad choice of terms.

Reactive Current Is a Vector Component of Load Current
Reactive Current Increases the Magnitude of Load Current
Reducing Reactive Current Increases Power Factor,, Reduces Load Current
For 500 KW Load

Power Reactive Load
Factor Current Current
(%) (Amps) (Amps)
65 27 36
71 23 33
78 18 30
86 14 27
93 9 25
98 5 24
100 0 23 Active Current

52
An amp of reactive current uses as much line and

equipment capacity as an amp of active current
Reactive current increases active and reactive
power losses
Reactive current increases voltage drop

53

54
Transmission System Loaded To Higher Level
Generating Units Remote To Load Centers
Power Purchases and Retail Competition
Increased Load Growth
Increased Active and Reactive Power Losses
Limited Dynamic and Static Reactive Capacity

55
Reactive problems have a way of sneaking up on you -

They evolve slowly as the transmission system becomes
heavily loaded
Reactive capacity may be sufficient for normal operating

conditions, however, sufficient dynamic reactive capacity
may not be in place to recover from major system
disturbances
Reactive problem may not be recognized until it’s too late

56
VAR flows create excessive voltage drop on transmission

lines and transformers
Insufficient dynamic reactive resources to maintain system

voltage control and serve reactive load and reactive losses
under contingency conditions
VAR flows increase loading on transmission lines utilizing

valuable line capacity
VAR flows increase active and reactive power losses

57
Voltage profile changes with load level
Low Voltage - Contingencies
Marginal transmission system voltages under normal

conditions
Generators and transformers out of regulation
Voltage Collapse

A progressive and uncontrolled decrease in voltage,
typically triggered by a major disturbance to a
heavily loaded transmission system with insufficient
dynamic reactive resources to serve reactive
losses and return voltage to acceptable levels,
resulting in partial or total blackout.

59
Heavy loading on transmission lines significantly increases reactive

losses requiring additional reactive resources to serve
Voltage drop across 345 kV transmission lines is predominantly

caused by line reactance which is 8-10 times line resistance
Delivering 1 MVAR results in 8-10 times as much voltage drop as

delivering 1 MW on the 345 kV transmission system
Excessive Voltage Drop Is the Penalty Paid for Delivering

Reactive Power On the Transmission System
60
R X
VS Vr Vs-Vr = I ( R + j X )
I
VS
jIX Vs–Vr =│I│(cosθ + jsinθ) (R+jX)

Vr
 Vs–Vr =│I│(cosθ R+jcosθ X+jsinθ R-sinθ X)
I IR
VS
│Vs-Vr│≈ │I│cos θ R - │I│sin θ X
Vr j |I| X cos
|I| R cos  │Vs-Vr│≈ IACTIVE * R – IREACTIVE * X

|I| X sin 
j |I| R sin 
61
Vs 100 Mile 345 kV T-Line

Z=.00545 + j.04752 PU @100MVA
Vr
L
O
Line Charging = 92.3 MVARS A
D
GENERATION Vs LINE LOSS Vr LOAD │ Vs – Vr│

(%)
(MW) ( MVAR ) (%) ( MW ) ( MVAR ) (%) ( MW ) ( MVAR )
514 24 103.5 14 119 100.2 500 0 3.3
24 634 103.5 24 208 72 0 500 31.5

Add more reactive generating capacity
Add more transmission capacity
Add more reactive sources close to the load center to

reduce reactive loading on transmission system
and
Reserve generating unit reactive capacity for
contingencies
63
Static Synchronous Compensator 45

Synchronous Condenser 40
Static VAR Compensator 35
Transmission Capacitors 21
Substation Capacitors 16
Distribution Feeder Capacitors 12

64
“I’m a distribution operating technician and we

have low voltage problems on very few
distribution feeders. If there’s a low voltage
problem on the transmission system, that’s their
problem, it doesn’t have anything to do with me.”

65
Generation, the transmission system, the distribution system,

and load make up an integrated power system.
The relationship between them is determined by the laws of

physics and is not a function of the business unit you’re in.
Each cannot operate independently from the others.
Reactive resources should be installed where the capacity will

do the most good and the installation is cost effective.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Distribution Maintain a Minimum 99 % Lagging Power
Factor Measured at Low Side of Substation
Transformer
Transmission Install Capacitors On Transmission
System To Maintain Adequate Voltage and Reactive
Reserve On Generating Units
Generation Ensure Full Reactive Generating Capability
Available On All Units
67
What is reactive compensation …
and what do those capacitors do ?

68
The Installation of a Reactive Source Close to the Load Center to

Reduce Reactive Loading On Up-line Equipment and Lines
Improves Up-line Power Factor
Reduces Transmission and Distribution Line Voltage Drop
Reduces Active and Reactive Power Losses
Reduced Reactive Loading On Lines and Equipment
Allows Delivery of More Active Power
Minimizes the Amount of Reactive Capacity Needed to Support
Voltage
Maintains Adequate Reactive Reserve On Generating Units To Control
Voltage and Serve Reactive Load Under Contingency Conditions

69
Power Factor on Low Voltage Side of Substation Transformer
1.0
1.00
POWER FACTOR
FACTOR
.99
.99
Load Power Factor

.98
.98
POWER
.97
.97
> 80 % Peak 99 - 100%

40 - 80 % Peak 97 - 100%
40
40% 50
50% 60
60% 70
70% 80
80% 90
90% 100
100% < 40 % Peak 97 - 99%
% of%Peak Load
OF PEAK LOAD

70
Use Watt / VAR Data To Determine Appropriate

Control Settings for Individual Feeders
Aggregate Feeders To Meet Power Factor
Guideline On Low Side of Substation Transformer
If There Is Not a High Voltage Problem, a Feeder
May Go Leading To Compensate for a Feeder
Which Cannot Be Corrected So That the
Aggregate Power Factor Meets Power Factor
Guideline
71
Power Factor Is the Percentage of Apparent Power Delivered

To Customers In the Form of Active Power
Active Power - Uses System Capacity - Metered To
Customers
Reactive Power - Uses System Capacity - Historically Not
Metered To Customers – Implementing Power Factor Penalty
Power Factor Is a Measure of How Efficiently System
Capacity Is Utilized

72
Optimize the value and productivity of assets

Obtain the greatest value from assets
Ensure the greatest return on investment
An excellent way to achieve these goals is to

use reactive compensation to reduce loading on heavily loaded or
overloaded distribution circuits
The Cost of a Capacitor Bank is significantly less than

the Cost to Rebuild or Re-conductoring a Circuit

73
Source Induction
Source Induction
Motor
Motor Feeder
Feeder M
M
I feeder I motor
I feeder I motor IC
Add Capacitor
then, I feeder = IR + j IX - j IC
I feeder= I motor = IR + j IX
Size Capacitor for 100% Power Factor
I R = Active Current
Capacitor Supplies Motor Reactive
Requirements, I C = I X
I X = Reactive Current
I motor = IR + j IX = IR + j IC
IR
I feeder is Reduced I feeder = IR
IX
I feeder= I motor = IR + j IX I feeder = IR

Feeder Loading Reduced
74
UNCORRECTED CORRECTED
500 kW PF = 65 % 500 kW PF = 95 %
θ = 49° θ = 18o
Cos θ = 0.65 Cos θ = 0.95
500 kW ( 23.1 AMPS ) 500 kW ( 23.1 AMPS )
A high power factor relates to a small reactive component

Power factor is the percentage of Apparent Power delivered in the form of Active Power
75
Ensure All Existing Capacitors In Service By June 1

Install All Proposed Capacitors By June 1
Optimize Use of Any Customer Owned Capacitors
Conduct Power Factor Awareness Training
Operate Within Power Factor Guideline

76
What is reactive compensation…

and what do those capacitors do ?
Reactive compensation is the installation of a

reactive source close to the load center which may
relieve reactive loading all the way back to the
generator. The reduction in reactive loading unloads
lines and equipment allowing delivery of more active
power, improves power factor, reduces T & D line
voltage drop, and reduces active and reactive power
losses. Capacitors are the most cost effective
reactive source.

77
Reactive current and power shouldn’t be referred to as imaginary, it’s just
poor terminology. Reactive current and reactive power are vector
components of load current and apparent power and contribute to their
magnitude. Reactive components of current use up line and equipment
capacity, increase active and reactive power losses, and increase voltage
drop.
Reactive Power Loss
Reactive loading is a fact of life ! 
I2X
because
VARs are for REAL

VARs Are Supplied By Capacitors and Generating Units
VARs Are Delivered To Inductors
Motor Load Is Inductive and the Largest Component of Reactive Load
Reactive Compensation Close to the Load Center Will Ensure Available Reactive Reserve on
Generating Units for Use During Emergency Conditions
Reactive Compensation With Capacitors
 Reduces Reactive Loading On Lines and Equipment
 Allowing Delivery of More Active Power
 Reduces Active and Reactive Power Losses
 Reduces Voltage Drop
Installation of Transmission and Distribution Capacitors Is the Most Cost Effective Solution to
the Reactive Problem
PERTANYAAN ?

(2019.l) STT-PLN - 01 Ac System Review

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Ridha Yasser, Ph.D.

C11041301 – SEMESTER GANJIL 2019/2020

Active and reactive power

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

p(t )  Vm I m cos(t ) cos(t   )

In R.M.S. terms, simplifies to:

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

Find the average power (Watts) over a cycle.

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

Active power absorbed by the load is positive.

I lags V I leads V I lags V I leads V

Apparent power: S = 𝑃2 + 𝑄2 = 1.292 + 0.752 = 1.49 VA

θ = (δ – β) = (15° - (-27°)) = 42° I* = 1.14 ∠ +27° Ampere

S = V I* = (2.77 ∠ 15°) (1.14 ∠ +27°) = 3.16 ∠ 42° VA

Always positive when

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

Find phasor expressions for voltage, current, and complex power.

S = V I* = (3 ∠ 0°) (1.14 ∠ –45°) = 3.42 ∠ –45° VA

Solution 1: P = V I cos(δ – β) = 10 cos(75°) = 2.59 Watt

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

“Wye” or “Y” connection

“Delta” or “” connection

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

A three-phase load must have the identical

If a phase is chosen as reference, then the balanced line-to-

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

Unbalanced Positive Negative Zero

This diagram shows a.b.c. or positive sequence, in which

In this alternative arrangement, called a.c.b. or negative

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

Solution: Ell = √3 Eln ∠ +30° kV

For a balanced system with a wye-connected load, the line

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

Solution (students to verify calculations as an exercise):

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

Line-to-line voltages are calculated as follows:

Vab  Van  Vbn  3Van30  3V30

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

Solution: Select phase a as reference.

Van (3200 / 3 )0V

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

Active Power = Apparent Power Cos θ

V I cos θ = │I│2 R V I sin θ = │I│2 X

Does Work Does No Work

Energy Converted to Heat, Light, Or Work No Energy Converted, No Heat Generated

Energy Periodically Stored In the Magnetic

The Total Active Power Generated Must

C11041301 GANJIL 2019/2020 TRANSFORMATOR & MESIN INDUKSI

VARs are supplied by passing current through a

VARs are delivered by passing current through an

VARs are supplied by - generators, line charging,