By: Jasper B.

Deroma
Inductor
An inductor is a device that stores energy in the
form of current. The most common form of inductors is a
wire wound into a coil. The magnetic field generated by the
wire creates a counter-acting electric field which impedes
changes to the current. This effect is known as Lenz’s law
and is stated mathematically as

The unit of inductance is a Henry (H) and common

inductors range from nanohenries (nH) to microhenries (μH).
Examples:
 In the hydrodynamic analogy of electronic circuits, an
inductor can be thought of as a fluid channel pushing a
flywheel as shown in Figure 2.6. When the fluid velocity
(current) in the channel changes, the inertia of the flywheel
tends to resist that change and maintain its original angular
momentum. A large inductor corresponds to a flywheel with a
large inertia, which will have a larger influence on the flow in
the channel. Correspondingly a small inductor corresponds
to a flywheel with a small inertia, which will have a lesser
effect on the current.
 An example of the time domain analysis of
an inductor circuit is shown in Figure 2.7 where the
inductor is connected in series with a resistor, a
switch, and an ideal voltage source. Initially, the
current through the inductor is zero and the switch
goes from closed to open at t = 0 . Similar to the
capacitor-resistor circuit, the time-domain behavior
of this circuit can be determined by solving the first
order differential equation. The resulting voltage
across the inductor is an exponential function of
time as shown in
Figure.
 Voltage output for the RL circuit as a function of time. Switching
circuits involving inductors have a rather destructive failure mode. Suppose
that in the circuit shown in Figure, the switch is opened again after the
current flowing through the inductor has reached steady-state. Since the
current is terminated abruptly, the derivative term of Eq. can be very high.
High voltages can result in electrical breakdown which can permanently
damage the inductor as well as other components in the circuit.
The Impedance of an Inductor

The ratio between voltage and current for an inductor

can be found in a similar way as for a capacitor. For a
sinusoidal voltage,
 Therefore, an inductor is a frequency-dependent resistance
that is directly proportional to frequency; ZL is small at low frequency
and large at high frequency. At DC, the impedance of an inductor is
zero. Just as for a capacitor, this expression shows that the voltage
across an inductor lags the current by a phase of 90 degrees.

Simple RL Filters

A low-pass filter can also be made using a resistor and an

inductor in series, as shown in Figure 3.4. Once again, the transfer
function of this filter can be determined like a voltage divider,
 The magnitude and phase
of the frequency response are
shown in Figure. For ω >> R / L ,
Vout is attenuated, whereas for ω
<< R / L , out in V ≅V . At the cut-
off frequency,
 A high-pass RL filter can be made from the
low-pass RL filter by switching the position of the
inductor and resistor as shown in Figure 3.5. The
transfer function is,
Chapter 3.4: Transformer
Models

?
Examples:
Transformer
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers
electrical energy between two or more circuits
through electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic induction
produces an electromotive force within a conductor which is
exposed to time varying magnetic fields. Transformers are used
to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric
power applications

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding

creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer core and a
varying field impinging on the transformer's secondary winding.
This varying magnetic at the secondary winding induces a
varying electromotive (EMF) or voltage in the secondary winding
due to electromagnetic induction. Making use of Faraday’s
Law (discovered in 1831) in conjunction with high magnetic
permeability core properties, transformers can be designed to
efficiently change AC voltages from one voltage level to another
within power networks.
Ideal Transformer equations
Equivalent circuit

Referring to the diagram, a practical transformer's physical

behavior may be represented by an equivalent circuit model, which
can incorporate an ideal transformer. Winding joule losses and
leakage reactance are represented by the following series loop
impedances of the model:

• Primary winding: RP, XP

• Secondary winding: RS, XS.

In normal course of circuit equivalence

transformation, RS and XS are in practice usually referred to the
primary side by multiplying these impedances by the turns ratio
squared, (NP/NS) 2 = a2.

Core loss and reactance is represented by the following

shunt leg impedances of the model:

• Core or iron losses: RC

• Magnetizing reactance: XM.
RC and XM are collectively termed the magnetizing branch of the
model.
 Core losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy
current effects in the core and are proportional to the square
of the core flux for operation at a given frequency.[31] The
finite permeability core requires a magnetizing current IM to
maintain mutual flux in the core. Magnetizing current is in
phase with the flux, the relationship between the two being
non-linear due to saturation effects. However, all impedances
of the equivalent circuit shown are by definition linear and
such non-linearity effects are not typically reflected in
transformer equivalent circuits. With sinusoidal supply, core
flux lags the induced EMF by 90°. With open-circuited
secondary winding, magnetizing branch current I0 equals
transformer no-load current.
 The resulting model, though sometimes termed
'exact' equivalent circuit based on linearity assumptions,
retains a number of approximation. Analysis may be
simplified by assuming that magnetizing branch impedance
is relatively high and relocating the branch to the left of the
primary impedances. This introduces error but allows
combination of primary and referred secondary resistances
and reactance by simple summation as two series
impedances.

Transformer equivalent circuit impedance and

transformer ratio parameters can be derived from the
following tests: open-circuit test, short-circuit test, winding
resistance test, and transformer ratio test.
Chapter 3.6: Models for
Passive Circuit
Components
 Passive Components in AC Circuits:

Electrical and electronic

circuits consist of connecting together
many different components to form a
complete and closed circuit.

The three main passive components used in any circuit

are the: Resistor, the Capacitor and the Inductor. All three of
these passive components have one thing in common, they
limit the flow of electrical current through a circuit but in very
different ways.
 Electrical current can flow through a circuit in either of
two ways. If it flows in one steady direction only it is classed as
direct current, (DC). If the electrical current alternates in both
directions back and forth it is classed as alternating current,
(AC). Although they present an impedance within a circuit,
passive components in AC circuits behave very differently to
those in DC circuits.

Passive components consume electrical energy and

therefore can not increase or amplify the power of any electrical
signals applied to them, simply because they are passive and as
such will always have a gain of less than one. Passive
components used in electrical and electronic circuits can be
connected in an infinite number of ways as shown below, with
the operation of these circuits depending on the interaction
between their different electrical properties.
Passive Components in AC Circuits
Where: R is resistance, C is capacitance and L is
inductance.

Resistors whether used in DC or AC circuits will

always have the same value of resistance no matter what
the supply frequency. This is because resistors are classed
to be pure having parasitic properties such as infinite
capacitance C = ∞ and zero inductance L = 0. Also for a
resistive circuit the voltage and current are always in-
phase so the power consumed at any instant can be found
by multiplying the voltage by the current at that instant.
 Capacitors and inductors on the other hand, have a
different type of AC resistance known as reactance, (XL , XC).
Reactance also impedes the flow of current, but the amount
of reactance is not a fixed quantity for one inductor or
capacitor in the same way that a resistor has a fixed value of
resistance. The reactance value of an inductor or a capacitor
depends upon the frequency of the supply current as well as
on the DC value of the component itself.

The following is a list of passive components

commonly used in AC circuits along with their corresponding
equations which can be used to find their value or circuit
current. Note that a theoretically perfect (pure) capacitor or
inductor does not have any resistance. However in the real
world they will always have some resistive value no matter
how small.