EXPERIMENTAL STUDY,

DEVELOPMENTAL STUDY AND

DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
DENDI DARMAWAN (F1022171051)
RAHMA REGITA (F1022171027)
RIZKI FIRMANSYAH (F1022171048)
 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
Characteristics

Experimental research is conducted in the following situations :

• Time is a vital factor for establishing a relationship between cause and effect.
• Invariable behavior between cause and effect.
• The eminence of cause-effect relationship is as per desirability.
The most important principles are :
• Randomization : the assignment of study components by a completely random method,
like simple random sampling.
• Randomization eliminates bias from the results Replication : the experiment must be
replicable by other researchers. This is usually achieved with the use of statistics like
the standard error of the sample meanor confidence intervals.
• Blocking : controlling sources of variation in the experimental results.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
Practical Designs
Select a topic.

Conduct a literature search.

Construct a hypothesis.

Determine the design of the research.

Determine the research methods.

Conduct the research and test the hypothesis.

Analyze the data.

Formulate conclusions.
 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
Typical Topic
Pretest-Posttest Design

Control Group

Randomized Controlled Trials

Solomon Four-Group Design

Between Subjects Design

Within Subject Design

Repeated Measures Design Counterbalanced Measures Design

Matched Subjects Design

Double-Blind Experiment

Bayesian Probability
 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
Typical Problems Statement

After deciding the topic of interest, the researcher tries to define the research problem. This
helps the researcher to focus on a more narrow research area to be able to study it appropriately.
Defining the research problem helps you to formulate a research hypothesis, which is tested
against the null hypothesis.
The research problem is often operationalizationed, to define how to measure the research
problem. The results will depend on the exact measurementsthat the researcher chooses and may
be operationalized differently in another study to test the main conclusions of the study.
An ad hoc analysis is a hypothesis invented after testing is done, to try to explain why the
contrary evidence. A poor ad hoc analysis may be seen as the researcher's inability to accept that
his/her hypothesis is wrong, while a great ad hoc analysis may lead to more testing and possibly
a significant discovery.
 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
Variables

Independent Variables
• Type of treatment : different types of drug treatments or psychological treatments
• Treatment factors : brief vs. long-term treatment, inpatient vs. outpatient treatment
• Experimental manipulations : types of beverage consumed (alcoholic vs. nonalcoholic)

Dependent Variables
• Behavioral variables : measures of adjustment, activity levels, eating behavior smoking
behavior.
• Physiological variables : measures of physiological responses such as heart rate, blood pressu
reand brain wave activity.
• Self-report variables : measures of anxiety, mood, or marital or life satisfaction.
 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
Hypotheses

True experiments have four elements :

Manipulation

Control

Random Assignment

Random Selection.
 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
Formulas To Analyze And To Draw The Conclusion

In quantitative research, the amount of data measured can be enormous. Data not prepared
to be analyzed is called "raw data". The raw data is often summarized as something called
"output data", which typically consists of one line per subject (or item). A cell of the output data
is, for example, an average of an effect in many trials for a subject. The output data is used for
statistical analysis, e.g. significance tests, to see if there really is an effect.
The aim of an analysis is to draw a conclusion, together with other observations. The
researcher might generalize the results to a wider phenomenon, if there is no indication
of confounding variables "polluting" the results.
If the researcher suspects that the effect stems from a different variable than the
independent variable, further investigation is needed to gauge the validity of the results. An exper
iment is often conducted because the scientist wants to know if the independent variable is
having any effect upon the dependent variable. Variables correlating are not proof that there
is causation.
 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
Sampling System

1. Sampling is the selection of participants for a research

2. Population refers to the group which the research wishes to draw conclusions from.
3. The term sample refers to the members of the population that have been chosen to take part
in the research.
4. Sampling procedures must ensure that the sample is representative of the population.

Instrument to collect and to analyze data :

• Need of Data Collection :
o To get information for analysis.
o To get idea about real time situation.
o For comparison between two situation.
 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
Instruments To Collect And To Analyze Data

Deductive approach
• Using your research questions to group the data and ther look for similarities and differences
• Used when time and resources are limited
• Used when qualitative research is a smaller component of a larger quantitative study
• Inductive approach
• Used when qualitative research is a major design of the inquiry.
• Using emergent framework to group the data and then look for relationships.
 DEVELOPMENTAL STUDY
Characteristics

The Focus of Developmental Research

Non Developmental Research in the Field

The Techniques and Tools of Developmental Research

 DEVELOPMENTAL STUDY
Practical Designs
Identifying design and development research problem and related questions

Using the literature to identify and refine the research problem

Defining methods and strategies

Selecting participants and settings

Collecting data

Interpreting findings
 DEVELOPMENTAL STUDY
Typical Topic
• Continuity vs. Discontinuity
Normative development is typically viewed as a continual and cumulative process. The
continuity view says that change is gradual. Children become more skillful in thinking, talking
or acting much the same way as they get taller.
• Nature vs. Nurture
Nature refers to the process of biological maturation inheritance and maturation. One of
the reasons why the development of human beings is so similar is because our common
specifies heredity (DNA) guides all of us through many of the same developmental changes
at about the same points in our lives. Nurture refers to the impact of the environment, which
involves the process of learning through experiences.
• Stability vs. Change
Stability implies personality traits present during present during infancy endure throughout
the lifespan. In contrast, change theorists argue that personalities are modified by
interactions with family, experiences at school, and acculturation.
 DEVELOPMENTAL STUDY
Typical Problems Statement
• Is there a predictable pattern they follow regarding thought and language and social
development?
• Do children go through gradual changes or are they abrupt changes?
Normative development is typically viewed as a continual and cumulative process. The
continuity view says that change is gradual. Children become more skillful in thinking, talking or
acting much the same way as they get taller.

• How much weight does each contribute?

• How do nature and nurture interact?
Nature refers to the process of biological maturation inheritance and maturation. One of the
reasons why the development of human beings is so similar is because our common specifies
heredity (DNA) guides all of us through many of the same developmental changes at about the
same points in our lives. Nurture refers to the impact of the environment, which involves the
process of learning through experiences.
 DEVELOPMENTAL STUDY
Variables

A dependent variable can be a measure of behavior, such as performance on test or reaction

time to a stimulus. It can be a self-report measure, such as responses on a personality or attitude
assessment. It can be a physiological measure, such as a change in brain waves or in levels of a
hormone.

Dependent variables must be identified by examining the design of an experiment. That is, so
me variables could potentially function as independent or dependent variables, depending on the
proposed pattern of cause and effect and on the way the variables are used in the experiment.
 DEVELOPMENTAL STUDY
Hypotheses

In research, a hypothesis is a statement about a predicted relationship between variables.

A good research hypothesis can be formulated as an “if-then” statement :
• If a child is exposed to the music of Mozart, then that child’s intelligence will increase.
• If students learn a math lesson by interacting with a computer, then they will solve math
problems more accurately than students who learn the same lesson by listening to a lecture.
Notice that a hypothesis is not a question. It is a statement, a prediction that requires the
researcher to go out on a limb and say what he or she thinks will happen in a given situation.
When stating a hypothesis, the researcher must run the risk of being wrong scientific hypothesis
must be falsifiable.
Hypotheses come from many sources. Researchers are not all wildly creative people, but they
do tend to be careful observers of the world around them. Reading existing research and theory
can also lead to the generation of hypotheses. Through the process of deductive logic, a general
theory leads to the prediction of a specific effect or conclusion.
 DEVELOPMENTAL STUDY
Formulas To Analyze And To Draw The Conclusion

How to analize developmental research is systematically examine the products, tools,

processes, and models in order to provide reliable, usable information to practitioner. It is
research, however, that is intricately connected to real world practice. It creates a loop with the
practice informing research and research in turn, and informing practice. And how to draw the
conclusion :
• The approaches to drawing conclusions should provide the new knowledge and insights
needed to help solve the problem.
• The conclusions should be derived from and consistent with the data analysis methods.
• As with all the components of research methodology the conclusions should be appropriate
for the variables, relationships, context, and so forth identified in the conceptual framework.
 DEVELOPMENTAL STUDY
Sampling System

Research in developmental psychology requires sampling at different time points. Accurate

depictions of developmental change provide a foundation for further empirical studies and
theories about developmental mechanisms. However, overreliance on widely spaced sampling
intervals in cross-sectional and longitudinal designs threatens the validity of the enterprise. The
ideal solution is daunting: to summarize behavior over 24-hour intervals and collect daily samples
over the critical periods of change. We discuss the magnitude of errors due to undersampling,
and the risks associated with oversampling. When daily sampling is not feasible, we offer suggesti
ons for sampling methods that can provide preliminary reference points and provisional sketches
of the general shape of a developmental trajectory.
 DEVELOPMENTAL STUDY
Instruments To Collect And To Analyze Data

As with other research projects, the data you collect depends on the nature and questions of
the study. However, design and development research projects have unique variations that make
certain types of data more relevant than in other types of research. The following are examples of
such data.
Design and development research projects typically have two types of participants: people
who are involved in the project such as designers and developers; design team, clients, learners
and instructors; the actual project itself (project scope, project resources, and the nature of the
particular product to be produced). Thus data should be collected related to both groups.
Context is critical part of design and development studies, as it is also critical to ID projects.
Three context areas are important for design and development projects: (1) the environment in
which the design and development takes place, (2) the environment in which the intervention is
implemented, and (3) the performance environment in which skills and knowledge are applied.
 DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
Characteristics

Quantitative Research

Uncontrolled Variables

Cross Sectional Studies

Basis For Further Research

 DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
Practical Designs
Statement of the problem

Identification of information needed to solve the problem

Selection or development of instruments for gathering the information

Identification of target population and determination of sampling procedure

Design of procedure for information collection

Collection of information

Analysis of information

Generalizations and/or predictions

 DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
Typical Topic

Observational Method

Case Study Method

Survey Research
 DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
Typical Problems Statement
Descriptive problems, namely a problem that does not compare and does not connect with
other variables only describe variables (Riduwan, 2009). Whereas according to Sugiono, 1994 in
his book pp. 36-39 Descriptive problem is a problem relating to independent variables, namely
without making comparisons and connecting between variables. Or in other words a descriptive
problem is a form of a problem related to a situation, a phenomenon, an event that occurs at this
time. From this descriptive problem then the descriptive research action arises, including in survey
research and history (Zainal, 2011).
 DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
Variables
Descriptive variables are those that which will be reported on, without relating them to
anything in particular. An independent variable is one is manipulated by the researcher. It is like
the knob on a dial that the researcher turns. In graphs, it is put on the X-axis. A dependent
variable is one which changes as a result of the independent variable being changed, and is put
on the Y-axis in graphs. The holy grail for researchers is to be able to determine the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables, such that if the independent variable is
changed, then the researcher will be able to accurately predict how the dependent variable will
change. Extraneous variables are additional variables which could provide alternative explanations
or cast doubt on conclusions.
Variables may have the following characteristics :
Period : When it starts and stops.
Pattern : Daily, weekly, ad-hoc, etc.
Detail : Overview through to 'in depth'.
Latency : Time between measuring dependent and independent variable.
 DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
Hypotheses
Definition of Descriptive Hypothesis
The Descriptive Hypothesis is a hypothesis that specifically states the existence, value, shape,
size, or distribution of a variable or the definition of a descriptive hypothesis is an estimate of the
value of one variable in one sample even though there can be several categories in it.
Examples of Descriptive Hypotheses
Problems in Research : Is the acceptance of the process of "peace in this city" different from
those from a particular environment?
 DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
Formulas To Analyze And To Draw The Conclusion
Analyzing
Detective Lombardo has spent the last month acquiring two different types of data on Aunt
Mildred's Bakery. He started with acquiring qualitative data, which is exploratory research that is
based on opinions and insights. Some examples of ways to acquire this type of research are focus
groups, in-depth interviews and observation. Detective Lombardo spent a few days observing the
consumers uninterrupted to see what they purchased and how they reacted in the store.
Drawing conclusion
For any research project and any scientific discipline, drawing conclusions is the final, and
most important, part of the process. Whichever reasoning processes and research methods were
used, the final conclusion is critical, determining success or failure. If an otherwise excellent
experiment is summarized by a weak conclusion, the results will not be taken seriously. Success or
failure is not a measure of whether a hypothesis is accepted or refuted, because both results still
advance scientific knowledge. Failure lies in poor experimental design, or flaws in the reasoning
processes, which invalidate the results. As long as the research process is robust and well
designed, then the findings are sound, and the process of drawing conclusions begins.
 DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
Sampling System
There are other sampling system that we assist our clients to develop like observations guide
among others depending on varied research designs :
• Questionnaire Method
• Interviews
• Focus Group
• Observation Method
• Document Analysis
• Note
 DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
Instruments To Collect And To Analyze Data
Designing Data Collection Instruments
We assist our customers in developing research instruments. This mainly include the
questionnaires and Interview guides. However, there are other instruments that we assist our clien
ts to develop like observations guides among others depending on varied research designs : One
method which can be used to ask questions is to use a questionnaire and interview. This is a set
of written questions on a sheet with spaces provided for respondents to reply to the questions.
Questionnaires are frequently self-administered or they may be used during an interview. A
questionnaire is most useful when you want to collect a small amount of clearly defined facts
from a large number of people. Although very useful, there are two important disadvantages of
self-administered questionnaires: Only people who can read and write can answer them (many
street children are not literate); Less opportunity exists for street children to explain confusing
answers. And interviewing is one of the commonest method of collecting information from
individuals.