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1
Chapter 11
Process
Chapter 11
K1 ′ K2 ′
X ( s) =
′ X1 ( s ) + W2 ( s ) (11-1)
τs + 1 τs + 1
where
Vρ w1 1− x
τ= , K1 = , and K2 = (11-2)
w w w
3
Chapter 11
4
Composition Sensor-Transmitter (Analyzer)
We assume that the dynamic behavior of the composition sensor-
transmitter can be approximated by a first-order transfer function:
X m′ ( s ) Km
= (11-3)
X ′ ( s ) τm s + 1
Chapter 11
Controller
Suppose that an electronic proportional plus integral controller is
used. From Chapter 8, the controller transfer function is
P′ ( s ) 1
= K c 1 + (11-4)
E ( s) τ s
I
E ( s ) = X%sp
′ ( s ) − X m′ ( s ) (11-6)
Chapter 11
7
Current-to-Pressure (I/P) Transducer
Because transducers are usually designed to have linear
characteristics and negligible (fast) dynamics, we assume that the
transducer transfer function merely consists of a steady-state gain
KIP :
Pt′( s )
Chapter 11
= K IP (11-9)
P′ ( s )
Control Valve
As discussed in Section 9.2, control valves are usually designed
so that the flow rate through the valve is a nearly linear function
of the signal to the valve actuator. Therefore, a first-order transfer
function usually provides an adequate model for operation of an
installed valve in the vicinity of a nominal steady state. Thus, we
assume that the control valve can be modeled as
W2′ ( s ) Kv
= (11-10)
Pt′( s ) τ v s + 1 8
Figure 11.5 Block diagram for the I/P transducer.
Chapter 11
9
Chapter 11
10
Closed-Loop Transfer Functions
The block diagrams considered so far have been specifically
developed for the stirred-tank blending system. The more general
block diagram in Fig. 11.8 contains the standard notation:
Y = controlled variable
Chapter 11
U = manipulated variable
D =disturbance variable (also referred to as load
variable)
P =controller output
E = error signal
Ym =measured value of Y
Ysp =set point
Y%
sp =
internal set point (used by the controller)
11
Chapter 11
12
Yu = change in Y due to U
Yd = change in Y due to D
Gc =controller transfer function
Gv =transfer function for final control element
Chapter 11
13
Block Diagram Reduction
In deriving closed-loop transfer functions, it is often convenient to
combine several blocks into a single block. For example, consider
the three blocks in series in Fig. 11.10. The block diagram
indicates the following relations:
Chapter 11
X1 = G1U
X 2 = G2 X1 (11-11)
X 3 = G3 X 2
By successive substitution,
X 3 = G3G2G1U (11-12)
or
X 3 = GU (11-13)
where G @G3G2G1.
14
Figure 11.10 Three blocks in series.
Chapter 11
15
Set-Point Changes
Next we derive the closed-loop transfer function for set-point
changes. The closed-loop system behavior for set-point changes is
also referred to as the servomechanism (servo) problem in the
control literature.
Chapter 11
Y = Yd + Yu (11-14)
Yd = Gd D = 0 (because D = 0) (11-15)
Yu = G pU (11-16)
Combining gives
Y = G pU (11-17)
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Figure 11.8 also indicates the following input/output relations for
the individual blocks:
U = Gv P (11-18)
P = Gc E (11-19)
E = Y% − Y
sp m (11-20)
Chapter 11
Y%
sp = K mYsp (11-21)
Ym = GmY (11-22)
Y = G p Gv P = G p GvGc E (11-23)
(
= G p Gv Gc Y%
sp − Ym ) (11-24)
17
Rearranging gives the desired closed-loop transfer function,
Y K mGcGvG p
= (11-26)
Ysp 1 + Gc Gv G p Gm
Disturbance Changes
Chapter 11
(
Y = Gd D + G pU = Gd D + G p GvGc K mYsp − GmY ) (11-28)
18
Because Ysp = 0 we can arrange (11-28) to give the closed-loop
transfer function for disturbance changes:
Y Gd
= (11-29)
D 1 + Gc Gv G p Gm
20
General Expression for Feedback Control Systems
Closed-loop transfer functions for more complicated block
diagrams can be written in the general form:
Z Πf
Chapter 11
= (11-31)
Zi 1 + Π e
where:
Zis the output variable or any internal variable within the
control loop
Ziis an input variable (e.g., Ysp or D)
Π f = product of the transfer functions in the forward path from
Zi to Z
Π e = product of every transfer function in the feedback loop
21
Example 11.1
Find the closed-loop transfer function Y/Ysp for the complex
control system in Figure 11.12. Notice that this block diagram has
two feedback loops and two disturbance variables. This
configuration arises when the cascade control scheme of Chapter
Chapter 11
16 is employed.
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Chapter 11
24
Solution
Using the general rule in (11-31), we first reduce the inner loop to
a single block as shown in Fig. 11.13. To solve the servo problem,
set D1 = D2 = 0. Because Fig. 11.13 contains a single feedback
loop, use (11-31) to obtain Fig. 11.14a. The final block diagram is
Chapter 11
27
Derivation of the process and disturbance transfer functions
directly follows Example 4.4. Consider the unsteady-state mass
balance for the tank contents:
dh
ρA = ρq1 + ρq2 − ρq3 (11-32)
dt
Chapter 11
H ′( s) Kp
= Gp ( s) = (11-34)
Q2′ ( s ) τs + 1
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H ′( s ) Kp
= Gd ( s ) = (11-35)
Q1′ ( s ) τs + 1
where Kp = R and τ = RA. Note that Gp(s) and Gd(s) are identical
because q1 and q2 are both inlet flow rates and thus have the same
Chapter 11
effect on h.
Proportional Control and Set-Point Changes
H ′( s) K c K v K p K m /τ( s +1 )
= (11-36)
′ ( s ) 1 + K c K v K p K m /τ( s +1
H sp )
29
Chapter 11
30
This relation can be rearranged in the standard form for a first-
order transfer function,
H ′( s) K1
= (11-37)
′ ( s ) τ1s + 1
H sp
where:
Chapter 11
KOL
K1 = (11-38)
1 + KOL
τ
τ1 = (11-39)
1 + KOL
KOL = K c K v K p K m (11-40)
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From Eq. 11-37 it follows that the closed-loop response to a unit
step change of magnitude M in set point is given by
(
h′ ( t ) = K1M 1 − e−t /τ 1 ) (11-41)
M
offset = M − K1M = (11-43)
1 + KOL
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Chapter 11
33
Proportional Control and Disturbance Changes
From Fig. 11.16 and Eq. 11-29 the closed-loop transfer function
for disturbance changes with proportional control is
H ′( s ) K p /τ( s +1 )
= (11-53)
Q1′ ( s ) 1 + KOL /τ( s +1 )
Chapter 11
Rearranging gives
H ′( s ) K2
= (11-54)
Q1′ ( s ) τ1s + 1
where τ1 is defined in (11-39) and K2 is given by
Kp
K2 = (11-55)
1 + KOL
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• A comparison of (11-54) and (11-37) indicates that both closed-
loop transfer functions are first-order and have the same time
constant.
• However, the steady-state gains, K1 and K2, are different.
• From Eq. 11-54 it follows that the closed-loop response to a
Chapter 11
(
h′ ( t ) = K 2 M 1 − e −t /τ 1 ) (11-56)
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Chapter 11
37
PI Control and Disturbance Changes
For PI control, Gc ( s ) = K c ( 1 + 1/τ I s ) . The closed-loop transfer
function for disturbance changes can then be derived from Fig.
11.16:
H ′( s ) K p /τ( s +1 )
= (11-58)
Chapter 11
(11-63)
H ′( s ) 1
= Gd ( s ) = (11-67)
Q1′ ( s ) As
40
Chapter 11
41
If the level transmitter and control valve in Eq. 11.22 have
negligible dynamics, the Gm(s) = Km and Gv(s) = Kv. For PI
control, Gc ( s ) = K c ( 1 + 1/τ I s ) . Substituting these expressions
into the closed-loop transfer function for disturbance changes
H ′( s ) Gd
= (11-68)
Q1′ ( s ) 1 + Gc Gv G p Gm
Chapter 11
1
Gc = K c Gv = (11-73)
2s + 1
1 1
G p = Gd = Gm = (11-74)
5s + 1 s +1
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Chapter 11
44
Stability
• Most industrial processes are stable without feedback control.
Thus, they are said to be open-loop stable or self-regulating.
• An open-loop stable process will return to the original steady
state after a transient disturbance (one that is not sustained)
Chapter 11
occurs.
• By contrast there are a few processes, such as exothermic
chemical reactors, that can be open-loop unstable.
45
Characteristic Equation
As a starting point for the stability analysis, consider the block
diagram in Fig. 11.8. Using block diagram algebra that was
developed earlier in this chapter, we obtain
K mGcGvG p Gd
Chapter 11
Y= Ysp + D (11-80)
1 + GOL 1 + GOL
46
Comparing Eqs. 11-81 and 11-82 indicates that the poles are also
the roots of the following equation, which is referred to as the
characteristic equation of the closed-loop system:
1 + GOL = 0 (11-83)
Example 11.8
Consider a process, Gp = 0.2/-s + 1), and thus is open-loop
unstable. If Gv = Gm = 1, determine whether a proportional
controller can stabilize the closed-loop system.
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Figure 11.25
Stability regions
Chapter 11
in the complex
plane for roots
of the charact-
eristic equation.
48
Figure 11.26
Contributions of
Chapter 11
characteristic
equation roots to
closed-loop
response.
49
Solution
The characteristic equation for this system is
s + 0.2 K c − 1 = 0 (11-92)
4 c1 c2 L
M M
n+1 z1
where:
an−1an−2 − an an−3
b1 = (11-94)
an−1
an−1an−4 − an an −5
b2 = (11-95)
an−1
M
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and:
b1an−3 − an−1b2
c1 = (11-96)
b1
Chapter 11
b1an−5 − an−1b3
c2 = (11-97)
b1
M
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Example 11.9
Determine the stability of a system that has the characteristic
equation
s 4 + 5 s 3 + 3s 2 + 1 = 0 (11-98)
Chapter 11
Solution
Because the s term is missing, its coefficient is zero. Thus,
the system is unstable. Recall that a necessary condition for
stability is that all of the coefficients in the characteristic
equation must be positive.
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Example 11.10
Find the values of controller gain Kc that make the feedback
control system of Eq. 11.4 stable.
Solution
Chapter 11
10 s3 + 17 s 2 + 8s + 1 + K c = 0 (11-99)
56
Equation 11-105 is satisfied if both the real and imaginary parts
are identically zero:
1 + K cm − 17ω 2 = 0 (11-106a)
(
8ω − 10ω3 = ω 8 − 10ω2 = 0 ) (11-106b)
Chapter 11
Therefore,
ω2 = 0.8 ⇒ ω = ±0.894 (11-107)
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Root Locus Diagrams
Example 11.13
Consider a feedback control system that has the open-loop
transfer function,
Chapter 11
4Kc
GOL ( s ) = (11-108)
( s + 1) ( s + 2 ) ( s + 3)
Plot the root locus diagram for 0 ≤ K c ≤ 20.
Solution
The characteristic equation is 1 + GOL = 0 or
( s + 1) ( s + 2 ) ( s + 3) + 4 Kc = 0 (11-109)
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• The root locus diagram in Fig. 11.27 shows how the three roots
of this characteristic equation vary with Kc.
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Chapter 11
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