THE CELL CYCLE CONTROL SYSTEM

•the sequential events of the cell cycle

•regulated by both internal and external controls

•has specific checkpoints where the cycle stops

until a go-ahead signal is received
 G1 checkpoint

Control
system S
G1

M G2

M checkpoint
G2 checkpoint
The G1 Checkpoint
Cell should be in appropriate size
Check DNA damage

The G2 Checkpoint
All chromosomes should be accurately
replicated
The M Checkpoint
Occurs near the end of metaphase stage
Spindle checkpoint
Determines whether all the sister chromatids
are correctly attached to the spindle
mirotubules
REGULATORY
PROTEINS
Cyclins
Cyclin-dependent kinases
(Cdks)
Maturation-promoting factor
Internal and External Signals
at the Checkpoints
• kinetochores not attached to spindle microtubules
send a molecular signal that delays anaphase

• proteins released by certain cells that stimulate

other cells to divide
Internal and External Signals
at the Checkpoints
• platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) stimulates
the division of human fibroblast cells in culture
1 A sample of human Scalpels
connective tissue is
cut up into small
pieces.

Petri
dish
2 Enzymes digest
the extracellular
matrix, resulting in
a suspension of
free fibroblasts.

4 PDGF is added 10 m
3 to half the
Cells are transferred to vessels.
culture vessels.

Without PDGF With PDGF

 Anchorage dependence

Density-dependent inhibition

Density-dependent inhibition

20 m 20 m
(a) Normal mammalian cells (b) Cancer cells
CANCER CELLS
Divide excessively and invade other tissues
Can kill the organism
Do not stop dividing when a growth factors
are depleted.
Do not need growth factors in their culture
medium to grow and divide
• Can go on dividing
indefinitely in culture if
they are given a
continual supply of
nutrients; “immortal”.

• HeLa cells (Henrietta

Lacks)
• Transformation – process that converts a normal
cell to a cancer cell.
- insurgent and destroys it.
- may proliferate

• TUMOR – a mass of abnormal cells within otherwise

normal tissue.
• Benign Tumor – abnormal cells remain at the
original site
- do not cause serious problems
Malignant Tumor – invasive enough to impair
the functions of one or more organs.

• Unusual numbers of chromosome

• Disabled metabolism
• Cease to function in any constructive way
• Abnormal changes on the cell surface – lose
attachments to neighboring cells and extracellular
matrix

• May secrete signal molecules that cause blood

vessels to grow toward the tumor.

Metastasis – spread of cancer cells to locations distant

from their original site
TREATMEN
T
• High-energy radiation – tumor
• Chemotherapy – known or suspected metastatic tumors

SIDE EFFECTS
• Nausea – effects on intestinal cells
• Hair loss – effects on hair follicle cells
• Susceptibility to infection from effect on immune system cells.
Cancer starts from a single mutant cell