INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS

TOPICS
• Blackbody Radiation & Planck’s Hypothesis
• The Photoelectric Effect
• The Compton Effect
• Photons and Electromagnetic Waves
• The Quantum Particle
• The Double-Slit Experiment Revisited
• The Uncertainty Principle with Modern Physics

Text Book
PHYSICS for Scientists and Engineers
with Modern Physics (6th ed)
By Serway & Jewett
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MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 1
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS
DEFINITION OF A BLACK BODY

An object that absorbs

all incident radiation.

A small hole cut into a cavity is the

most popular and realistic example.
None of the incident radiation escapes.

The electromagnetic radiation emitted by the black body is

called black-body radiation.

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MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 2
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS
•The black body is an ideal absorber of incident radaition.
•The emitted "thermal" radiation from a black body
characterizes the equilibrium temperature of the black-body.
•Emitted radiation from a blackbody does not depend on
the material of which the walls are made.

PLOT OF SPECTRAL INTENSITY OF

RADIATION EMITTED BY A BLACK
BODY AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES

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MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 3
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS
Basic Laws of Radiation
1) All objects emit radiant energy.
2) Hotter objects emit more energy (per unit area) than
colder objects. The total power of the emitted radiation
increases with temperature.
 This is Stefan’s Law: P =  A e T 4
(3) The peak of the wavelength distribution shifts to shorter
wavelengths as the black body RAYLEIGH-JEANS LAW
temperature increases
This is Wien’s Displacement Law:
λm T = constant
(4)  The Rayleigh-Jeans Law:
2ck T
I(, T) 
4
Failure of this law in UV-region is
4
known as the ultraviolet
MIT- MANIPAL catastrophe.
BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 4
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS
Basic Laws of Radiation
(5)  The Planck‘s Law: HIGH
TEMP

2 I
2 hc 1
I(, T )  LOW
5 hc
e
TEMP
λkT
1
λ
This law explains the distribution of
energy from a black body in the entire
EM-spectrum. This law is in agreement with the
experimental data.

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MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 5
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS
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Assumption made in the 2  h c 1
I(, T ) 
derivation of the Planck‘s Law 5 hc

1) Energy of an oscillator in cavity walls:

e λkT
 1
En = n h f
2) Amount of emission / absorption of energy will be
integral multiples of hf.

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MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 6
 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Photoelectric effect =
Ejection of electrons from the
surface of the metal when
T
irradiated by a suitable
electromagnetic radiation APPARATUS FOR
STUDYING
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

SCHEMATIC CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

A
E
V

C λ
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MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 7
 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Experimental Observations
1. On illuminating plate E by light,
photoelectrons are emitted from E
and a current is detected in A.
2. KE of the most energetic
photoelectrons is, KMAX = e Vs
3. KMAX is independent of light
intensity.
4. Instantaneous effect
A
5. No photoemission for
E
f < fTHRESHOLD V
6. KMAX increases with
increasing f
C λ
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MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 8
 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Classical Predictions
1. Electrons should absorb energy continuously from the
light waves and photoelectrons should be ejected for
all frequency
2. KE of the electrons should increase with intensity of light
3. Measurable/ larger time interval between incidence of
light and ejection of photoelectrons
4. Ejection of photoelectron should not depend on light
frequency
5. KMAX should not depend upon the frequency of the
incident light A
E
V
Experimental results contradict
classical predictions
C λ
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MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 9
 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Einstein’s Interpretation of electromagnetic radiation:

Photon energy E depends on frequency f: E = hf
Intensity corresponds to number of photons
Photons move in vacuum at the speed : c = 3 x 108 m/s
Momentum of the photon: p = E/c.

Einstein’s model of the photoelectric effect:

Electron absorbs the energy hf completely and uses a
part of it to overcome the binding energy.
The kinetic energy of the most energetic photoelectron
KMAX = hf −  [EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION]
 = work function of the metal
= the minimum energy with which an electron is bound in
the metal. 10
MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 10
 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Observed features of photoelectric effect that could be
explained by Einstein’s photoelectric equation: KMAX = hf − 
1. Kmax depends only on f
2. Instantaneous effect
3. Existence of fTHRESHOLD = fc
4. fc =  /h
KMAX
METAL 1 METAL 2

Einstein predicted that a graph of the

KMAX vs frequency f would be a SLOPE = h
straight line, given by the linear fC1 fC2
f

relation:
Kmax = hf −  −ϕ1

[EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION]

−ϕ2

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MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 11
 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Application of photoelectric effect

Photomultiplier tube

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MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 12
 THE COMPTON EFFECT
Introduction: Particle properties:
Relativistic formula E 2 = p2 c 2 + m2 c 4
E = the total energy of the particle; E =  m c2
1
γ =
v2
1 − c2
p = momentum of the particle
m = mass of the particle
v = speed of the particle
c = speed of light in vacuum
Rest energy of the particle: Eo = m c2
Relativistic momentum of a particle: p =  mv
Relativistic kinetic energy of a particle: K = E − Eo
K = ( -1) m c2 13
MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 13
 THE COMPTON EFFECT
Introduction: Photon properties:
Photon energy: E = h f = h c / 
For photon, m = 0,  K = E=pc
c= f
𝐄 𝐡𝐟 𝐡
Photon momentum 𝐩 = = =
𝐜 𝛌𝐟 𝛌

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 THE COMPTON EFFECT

What is Compton Effect ?

Scattering of photons with lower energy

Classical Predictions: INCIDENT BEAM

Effect of oscillating
electromagnetic waves on electrons:
SCATTERED BEAM
(a) oscillations in electrons, re-radiation in all
directions
(b) radiation pressure - electrons accelerate in
the direction of propagation of the waves
Different electrons will
move at different speeds
after the interaction
The scattered wave frequency should
show a distribution of Doppler-shifted values 15
MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 15
 THE COMPTON EFFECT
Schematic diagram of Compton’s apparatus

Experimental Observations:
Graph of scattered x-ray intensity versus wavelength

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 THE COMPTON EFFECT

Compton shift = Shift in wavelength of scattered X-rays

λ’ − λo = [h/(mc)] (1−cos θ)

Compton wavelength, h/(mc) = 2.43 pm

Graph of scattered x-ray intensity versus wavelength

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MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 17
 THE COMPTON EFFECT
DERIVATION OF THE COMPTON SHIFT EQUATION

INCIDENT PHOTON
ϕ
ELECTRON 
Photon is treated as a particle having AT REST

energy E = hfo = hc/o and zero rest

energy. Photons collide elastically with free
electrons initially at rest as shown in figure.
In the scattering process, the total energy and total linear
momentum of the system must be conserved.
o = wavelength of the incident photon,
po = h/o = momentum of the incident photon,
Eo = hc/o = energy of the incident photon,
’ = wavelength of the scattered photon,
p’ = h/’ = momentum of the scattered photon,
E’ = hc/’ = energy of the scattered photon,
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 THE COMPTON EFFECT
DERIVATION OF THE COMPTON SHIFT EQUATION
1
 INCIDENT PHOTON
ϕ
1 v2
c2
ELECTRON 
AT REST
v = speed of the electron
m = mass of the electron
p =  m v = momentum of the electron
E = p2 c 2 + m2 c 4 = total relativistic energy of
the electron
K = E − m c2 = kinetic energy of the electron
Conservation of energy: Eo = E’ + K
ie, Eo = E’ + (E − m c2)
OR Eo − E’ + m c2 = E = p2 c 2 + m2 c 4
SQUARING BOTH THE SIDES,
Eo − E′ 2 + 2 Eo − E′ mc 2 + m2 c 4 = p2 c 2 + m2 c 4 19
MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 19
 THE COMPTON EFFECT
DERIVATION OF THE COMPTON SHIFT EQUATION
ϕ
Conservation of momentum: INCIDENT PHOTON

x-component: po = p′ cos θ + p cos ϕ ELECTRON 

AT REST
y-component: 0 = p′ sin θ − p sin ϕ
Rewriting these two equations-
po − p′ cos θ = p cos ϕ
p′ sin θ = p sin ϕ
SQUARING BOTH THE SIDES AND ADDING,
2
po − 2po p′ cos θ + p′2 = p2
SUBSTITUTING THIS p2 IN THE EQUATION GOT BY CONSERVATION
OF ENERGY: Eo − E′ 2 + 2 Eo − E′ mc 2 = p2 c 2 ONE GETS
2 2
Eo − E′ + 2 Eo − E′ mc 2 = po − 2po p′ cos θ + p′2 c 2
SUBSTITUTING PHOTON ENERGIES AND PHOTON MOMENTA ONE GETS
2 2
hc hc hc hc 2 hc hc hc hc 2
λo
− λ′
+2 λo
− λ′
mc = λo
−2 λo λ′
cos θ + ′
λ20
MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 20
 THE COMPTON EFFECT
DERIVATION OF THE COMPTON SHIFT EQUATION

INCIDENT PHOTON
ϕ
SIMPLIFYING ONE GETS ELECTRON 
AT REST
2
hc hc hc hc 2 1 1
λo
− 2 λo 𝛌′
+ 𝛌′
+ 2 hc λo
− 𝛌′
mc 2
2
hc hc hc hc 2
= λ −2 λ 𝛌′
cos θ + 𝛌′
o o

hc hc
ie, − + 1
− 1
λ′
mc 2 =− cos θ
λo λ′ λo λo λ′

λ′ −λo hc
OR,
λo λ′
mc 2 = 1 − cos θ
λo λ′

h
COMPTON SHIFT: λ′ − λo = 1 − cos θ
mc
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MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 21
 PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Photons and Electromagnetic Waves
Evidence for Evidence for
wave-nature of light particle-nature of light
• Diffraction • Photoelectric effect
• Interference • Compton effect

•Light exhibits diffraction and interference phenomena that

are only explicable in terms of wave properties.
• Photoelectric effect and Compton effect can only be
explained taking light as photons / particle
• This means true nature of light is not describable in terms
of any single classical picture.
•In short, the particle model and the wave model of light
compliment each other.
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MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 22
 PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
DE BROGLIE
The Wave Properties of Particles

de Broglie Hypothesis

PLANCK’S CONSTANT
DE BROGLIE WAVELENGTH
  ph h = 6.63 x 10–34 J.s

FREQUENCY OF THE PARTICLE ENERGY OF THE PARTICLE

f E
h
p = m v for a non-relativistic particle
The electron accelerated through a potential
difference of V has a non-relativistic kinetic energy
2
1
2
mv  eV
Momentum of electron p  m v  2me V
PRINCIPLE OF COMPLEMENTARITY: Wave and particle models
of either matter or
MIT- MANIPAL radiation compliment
BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION each
TO QUANTUM other.
PHYSICS
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 THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

-PARTICLES HAVING DUAL NATURE

-Have features of both an ideal particle and an ideal wave
-Ideal particle is localized in space
-Ideal wave is infinitely long (unlocalized)
AN IDEAL WAVE

BUILDING UP OF A LOCALIZED
ENTITY FROM IDEAL WAVES –

Superpose two waves -

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MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 24
 THE QUANTUM PARTICLE
BUILDING UP OF A WAVEPACKET FROM
IDEAL WAVES –

Superpose large number of waves -

The region where constructive

interference takes place is called a
WAVEPACKET, which represents a
particle

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MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 25
 THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

Mathematical Representation of a wave packet

superposition of two waves [ k = 2π/λ , ω = 2πf ]
y1  A cos (k1 x - 1t) and y 2  A cos (k 2 x - 2 t)
The resultant wave is, y = y1 + y2
  Δk Δω   k1 + k 2 ω1 + ω2 
y = 2A cos  x - t  cos  x - t 
 2 2   2 2 
Amplitude varies with t and x
Where k = k1 – k2 and  = 1 – 2.

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MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 26
 THE QUANTUM PARTICLE
GROUP SPEED OF THE WAVE PACKET = speed of the group of waves
or the envelope
( Δω 2) Δω
The group speed, v G  
( Δk 2) Δk
For a superposition of large number dω
of waves to form a wave packet
vG  dk

PHASE SPEED OF THE WAVE PACKET = vP  f λ

speed with which wave crest moves ω
vP  k
vG ≠ vP for a particle, vG < vP

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 THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

Relation between group speed and phase speed


v PHA SE   f
k
   k v PHA SE  k v P

dω d (kvP ) dvP
But vG = =  k  vP
dk dk dk

Substituting for k in terms of , we get

vG = vP –  
 dv P 

 d 
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MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 28
 THE QUANTUM PARTICLE
Relation between group speed and particle speed
E 2 2 2 p
  2 f  2 and k= = =
h λ hp h
2
dE
dω h dE
vG = = =
dk 2 dp
dp
h
For a classical particle moving with speed u, the kinetic
energy E is given by
2
1 p 2 p dp dE p
E  mu2  and dE = or = = u
2 2m 2m dp m
dω dE
vG    u, PARTICLE SPEED
dk dp
ie., we should identify the group speed with the particle
speed,
MIT- MANIPAL speed with which the energy
BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION moves.
TO QUANTUM PHYSICS
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 THE DOUBLE–SLIT EXPERIMENT REVISITED

ELECTRON INTERFERENCE

PHOTOGRAPH OF A DOUBLE-SLIT
INTERFERENCE PATTERN
PRODUCED BY ELECTRONS
The first minimum occurs when d sin   /2
Electron wavelength is given by   h /p
h
For small angle θ, sin  ≈  
2pd
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MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 30
 THE DOUBLE–SLIT EXPERIMENT REVISITED

RESULTS OF THE TWO-SLIT ELECTRON DIFFRACTION

EXPERIMENT WITH EACH SLIT CLOSED HALF THE TIME (BLUE)

THE RESULT WITH BOTH SLITS OPEN

(INTERFERENCE PATTERN IS SHOWN IN BROWN)

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MIT- MANIPAL BTech-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS 31
 THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE:
Impossible to make simultaneous measurements of a
particle’s position & momentum with infinite accuracy
If  = 0, then p =0; but x = 
If x is small, then  is large
If x =0, then  = p = 
( x ) ( px) ≥ h / 4
x = UNCERTAINTY IN THE MEASUREMENT OF POSITION x OF THE PARTICLE
px = UNCERTAINTY IN THE MEASUREMENT OF MOMENTUM px
OF THE PARTICLE

Also ( E ) ( t ) ≥ h / 4
E = UNCERTAINTY IN THE MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY E OF THE SYSTEM
t = UNCERTAINTY IN THE MEASUREMENT OF THE LIFETIME T
OF THE SYSTEM IN THE ENERGY STATE E
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