ACTIVE & REACTIVE POWER

CONTROL
Dr. Partha Kayal
Electrical Engineering Department
NIT Silchar
ACTIVE POWER CONTROL
(LFC & AGC METHOD)
LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL:
(i) GENERATOR MODEL:

1 d2 ∆𝜕 1
2
= (∆Pm − ∆Pe )
ws dt 2H

d∆w 1
=> = (∆Pm − ∆Pe )
dt 2H
Taking laplace we obtain,

𝟏
∆𝐰(s)= (∆𝐏𝐦 (𝐬) − ∆𝐏𝐞 (𝐬))
𝟐𝐇.𝐬

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 1
∆Pm (𝑠) - ∆w(s)
2H. s

∆Pe (s)

Fig :Block diagram of Generator model

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• (ii) LOAD MODEL:
∆𝑷𝒆 = ∆𝑷𝐋 + 𝐃∆𝐰
∆PL = non frequency sensitive load change.
D∆w= frequency sensitive load change

∆PL (𝑠)

-
1
∆Pm ( (s) 2H. s + D ∆w(s)

Fig: Block diagram of generator and load model 5

• (iii) PRIME MOVER MODEL:
∆𝐏𝐦 (𝐬) 𝟏
• 𝐆𝐓 (s)= =
∆𝐏𝐯 (𝐬) 𝟏+𝐓𝐓 . 𝐬

• ∆𝑃𝑣 (𝑠) 1 ∆𝑃𝑚 (𝑠)

1 + 𝜏𝑇 . 𝑠

Fig: Block diagram of steam turbine

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(iv) GOVERNOR MODEL:
• Components of governor model:

(i) Speed governor

(ii) Linkage mechanism.
(iii) Hydraulic amplifier.
(iv) Speed changer.

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 R=speed regulation

Fig: Governor steady state speed characteristics

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• The speed governor mechanism acts as compensator whose output
∆𝑃𝑔 𝑖𝑠 the difference between the reference set power ∆𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 and the
1
power ∆w as given from governor speed characteristic.
𝑅
1
i.e. ∆𝑃𝑔 =∆𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 - 𝑅
∆w
𝟏
• Taking laplace, ∆𝐏𝐠 (s)= ∆𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐟 (s) - ∆w (s)
𝐑
• The command ∆𝑃𝑔 is transformed through hydraulic amplification to
steam valve position command ∆𝑃𝑣 . Assuming linear relationship-
𝟏
∆𝐏𝐯 (𝐬) = . ∆𝐏𝐠 (s)
𝟏+𝝉𝐠 .𝐬

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 ∆𝑃𝑔 (s)
1 ∆𝑃𝑣 (𝑠)
1 + 𝜏𝑔 . 𝑠

∆w (s)

Fig: Block diagram of speed governing system

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 ∆𝑃𝐿 (s)

1 1
1 + 𝜏𝑔 . 𝑠 1 + 𝜏𝑇 . 𝑠

-∆𝑃𝐿 (s)
1
∆w (s)
2 𝐻. 𝑆 + 𝐷

1
𝑅(1 + 𝜏𝑔 . 𝑠)(1 + 𝜏 𝑇 . 𝑠)
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Fig: Single area LFC control
• Therefore, Open loop T.F.
𝟏
KG(s)H(s)=
𝐑(𝟐𝐇.𝐒+𝐃)(𝟏+𝝉𝐠 .𝐬)(𝟏+𝝉𝐓 .𝐬)

• Closed loop T.F. relating the load change ∆𝑃𝐿 to the frequency
deviation ∆𝑤 is given by,
∆𝐰(𝐬) (𝟏+𝝉𝐠 .𝐬)(𝟏+𝝉.𝐬)
= 𝟏
−∆𝐏𝐋 (𝐬) 𝟐𝐇.𝐒+𝐃 𝟏+𝝉𝐠 .𝐬 𝟏+𝝉𝐓 .𝐬 +
𝐑

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• If we give the load change i.e. ∆𝑃𝐿 as a step function; so ∆𝑃𝐿 (s)=∆𝑃𝐿 /s
Steady state value of ∆𝑤 𝑖𝑠
1
∆𝑤𝑠𝑠 = lim s∆w(s) (−∆𝑃𝐿 ) 1
s→0 (D+R )

• When several generators with governor speed regulations 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , … … . . 𝑅𝑛 are

connected to the system, the steady state deviation in frequency is given by:

𝟏
∆𝐰𝐬𝐬 = (−∆𝐏𝐋 ) 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
(𝐃+ + +⋯…+ )
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝐧

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AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL(AGC)
(i)AGC IN SINGLE AREA:
1 1
(𝟏 + 𝝉𝐠 . 𝐬 𝟏 + 𝝉𝐓 . 𝐬

Fig: Block diagram of single area AGC control

∆𝐰(𝐬) (𝟏+𝝉𝐠 .𝐬)(𝟏+𝝉𝐓 .𝐬)
T.F. , = 𝐬
−∆𝐏𝐋 (𝐬) 𝐬 𝟐𝐇.𝐒+𝐃 𝟏+𝝉𝐠 .𝐬 𝟏+𝝉𝐓 .𝐬 +𝐊 𝐈 +
𝐑
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 (ii) AGC IN MULTI-AREA SYSTEM:

• The AGC of a multi -area system can be realized by studying first the AGC for a two
area system.
• Consider two areas represented by an equivalent generating unit interconnected by a
lossless tie line with reactance Xtie .
• Each area is represented by a voltage source behind an equivalent reactance as
shown in fig below.

Fig:Equivalent Network for a Two - Area Power System

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• During normal operation power transferred over the tie line is given by
E1 |E2 |
P12 = sin𝜕12
X12
where X12 =X1 +X 2 +X tie and 𝜕12 =𝜕1 −𝜕2

• Then tie line power deviation, ∆𝐏𝟏𝟐 =𝐏𝐬 (∆𝛛𝟏 −∆𝛛𝟐 )

• If ∆𝛛𝟏 > ∆𝛛𝟐 , then power flows from area 1 to area 2.

• Consider ∆PL1 is the load change occurred in area-1. In steady state, both areas will have
same steady state frequency deviation,
i.e. ∆w=∆w1 = ∆w2
and ∆Pm1 − ∆P12 − ∆PL1 = ∆wD1 … … … … … … … … … . (1)
∆Pm2 + ∆P12 = ∆wD2 ………………………………….(2)

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• From governor speed characteristic, mechanical power is given by
−∆w −∆w
∆Pm1 = and ∆Pm2 =
R1 R2

• Then at steady state value of ∆w , summing equation(1) &(2)

∆Pm1 + ∆Pm2 − ∆PL1 =∆w (D1 +D2 )
−∆w −∆w
=> + − ∆PL1 =∆w (D1 +D2 )
R1 R2
−∆PL1
=> ∆w = 1 1
(R +D1 )(R +D2 )
1 2

−∆𝐏𝐋𝟏
=> ∆𝐰 =
(𝐁𝟏 +𝐁𝟐 )
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• B1 & B𝟐 are called frequency bias factor.
• From equation (2) change in tie line power:
𝟏
• ∆𝐏𝟏𝟐 = ∆𝐰( + 𝐃𝟐 )
𝐑𝟐

Fig:Two area model with only primary LFC loop 18

#Problem: A two area system connected by a tie line has the following parameter
on 1000 MVA base.
Parameters Area-1 Area-2
Speed regulation R1=0.05 R2=0.0625
Frequency sensitive load D1=0.6 D2=0.9
coefficient
Inertia Constant H1=5 H2=4
Governor time constant 𝜏𝑔1 =0.2 s 𝜏𝑔2 =0.3 s

Turbine time constant 𝜏 𝑇1 =0.5 s 𝜏 𝑇2 =0.5 s

The units are operating in parallel at 60 Hz frequency. Synchronising power

coefficient, Ps=2.0 pu. If a load change of 187.5 MW occurs in are-1, Determine the
steady state frequency change and tie line power flow.

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∆𝑃𝐿1 = (187.5/1000) = 0.1875 pu
−∆PL1
∆w = 1 1 = -0.005 pu
(R +D1 )(R +D2 )
1 2

Steady state frequency change,

∆𝑓 = (-0.005*60) = -0.3 Hz

Tie-line power flow,

𝟏
∆𝐏𝟏𝟐 = ∆𝐰( + 𝐃𝟐 ) = -0.005*16.9 = -0.0845 pu = -84.5 MW
𝐑𝟐

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 −∆w
∆Pm1 = = -0.10 pu = -100 MW = 100 MW(generation)
R1
−∆w
∆Pm2 = = -0.08 pu = -80 MW = 80 MW(generation)
R2

∆wD1 = −0.003 pu = -3 MW = 3 MW(generation)

∆wD2 = −0.0045 pu = -4.5 MW = 4.5 MW(generation)

Total Generation in area-1: 103 MW (due to frequency drop)

Total Generation in area-2: 84.5MW (due to frequency drop)

The amount of power 84.5 MW flows from area-2 to area-1 through Tie-line.
Total load demand of 187.5 MW is met in this way and system becomes balanced.

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TIE -LINE BIAS CONTROL:

• The system frequency and the net power flowing in or out over the
tie lines are two important information for this type of control. This
type of control scheme have to recognize:
(i)If frequency decreased and net interchange power leaving the
system increased, a load increase has occurred outside the system.
(ii)If frequency decreased and net interchange power leaving the
system decreased, a load increase has occurred inside the system.
• We define a control area to be a part of an interconnected system
within which the load and generation will be controlled as per the
rules in fig(i).
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∆𝐰 ∆𝐏𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒕 Load change Resulting control action
- - ∆𝐏𝑳𝟏 + Increase 𝐏𝒈𝒆𝒏 in system1
∆𝐏𝑳𝟐 0
+ + ∆𝐏𝑳𝟏 - Decrease 𝐏𝒈𝒆𝒏 in system1
∆𝐏𝑳𝟐 0

- + ∆𝐏𝑳𝟏 0 Increase 𝐏𝒈𝒆𝒏 in system2

∆𝐏𝑳𝟐 +

+ - ∆𝐏𝑳𝟏 0 Decrease 𝐏𝒈𝒆𝒏 in system2

∆𝐏𝑳𝟐 -

∆𝐏𝑳𝟏 =
1 2 Load change in area1
∆𝐏𝑳𝟐 =Load change in
∆𝐏𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒕 area2

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Fig(i): Tie line frequency control actions for two area systems
• The single control strategy is to keep the frequency approximately at
the nominal value and each area should absorb its own load changes
as possible. So, for this purpose tie-line bias control is used. Where
each area tend to reduce the Area Control Error (ACE) to
approximately to zero. The control error for each area consists of a
linear combination of frequency and tie-line error.

𝐀𝐂𝐄𝐢 =σ𝐧𝐣=𝟏 ∆𝐏𝐢𝐣 + 𝐊 𝐢 ∆𝐰

The area bias K i determines the amount of interaction during a

disturbance in the neighbouring areas. An overall satisfactory
performance is achieved when K i is selected equal to the frequency
1
bias factor of that area i.e. Bi = + Di
Ri
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• Thus ACEs for two-area system are:
𝐀𝐂𝐄𝟏 =∆𝐏𝟏𝟐 +𝑩𝟏 ∆𝒘𝟏
𝐀𝐂𝐄𝟐 =∆𝐏𝟐𝟏 +𝑩𝟐 ∆𝒘𝟐

• ACEs are used as the actuating signals. When steady state is reached
∆𝐏𝟏𝟐 & ∆𝐰 will become approximately zero. So, ACEs=0.

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Fig: Block diagram of AGC for 2 area with tie line bias control
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REACTIVE POWER &
VOLTAGE CONTROL
(AVR METHOD)
• Amplifier Model:
VR (𝑠) KA
=
Ve (𝑠) 1+τA .𝑠
• Exciter Model:
Vf (𝑠) KE
=
VR (𝑠) 1+τE .𝑠
• Generator Model:
Vt (𝑠) KG
= , Vt is depend on generator load.
Vf (𝑠) 1+τG .𝑠
• Sensor model: The voltage is sensed through a P.T. and then it is rectified
through a bridge rectifier.
Vs (𝑠) KR
=
Vt (𝑠) 1+τR .𝑠

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 𝑲𝐀 𝐊𝐄 𝐊𝐆
- 𝟏 + 𝝉𝐀 . 𝒔 𝟏 + 𝛕𝐄 . 𝐬 𝟏 + 𝛕𝐆 . 𝐬

𝐊𝐑
𝟏 + 𝛕𝐑 . 𝐬

Fig: Block diagram of AVR control

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• Closed loop transfer function relating the generator terminal
voltage Vt s to the reference voltage Vref (s) is,

Vt (𝑠) KA .KE .KG. (1+τR .𝑠)

=
Vref (𝑠) 1+τA .𝑠 1+τE .𝑠 1+τG .𝑠 1+τR .𝑠 +KA +KE +KG.
1
• For a stepinput Vref = , using the final value theorem the steady
𝑠
state response is,

KA .KE .KG.
Vt.ss =lim s. Vt (s)=
s→0 1+KA .KE .KG. .KR.

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