Sie sind auf Seite 1von 47

Akuntansi biaya

Keenambelas Edisi, Edisi Global

Bab 10
Menentukan
Bagaimana Biaya
Berperilaku

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd Seluruh hak cipta.
Tujuan Pembelajaran (1 dari 2)
10.1 Jelaskan fungsi biaya linear dan tiga umum
cara di mana mereka berperilaku.
10.2 Explain the importance of causality in estimating cost
functions.
10.3 Understand various methods of cost estimation.
10.4 Outline six steps in estimating a cost function using
quantitative analysis.
10.5 Describe three criteria used to evaluate and choose
• cost drivers.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Learning Objectives (2 of 2)
‪ 10.6 Explain nonlinear cost functions, in particular those
‪ arising from learning-curve effects.
‪ 10.7 Be aware of data problems encountered in estimating
‪ cost functions.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Cost Function, Defined
• A cost function is a mathematical description of how a cost
changes with changes in the level of an activity relating to
that cost.
• Managers often estimate cost functions based on two
assumptions:
 Variations in the level of a single activity (the cost driver)
explain the variations in the related total costs, and
 Cost behavior is approximated by a linear cost function
within the relevant range.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Cost Terminology
From prior chapters, we are familiar with the distinction
between variable and fixed costs and in this chapter, we
introduce mixed costs.
• Variable costs—costs that change in total in relation to
some chosen activity or output.
• Fixed costs—costs that do not change in total in relation to
some chosen activity or output.
• Mixed costs—costs that have both fixed and variable
components; also called semivariable costs.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Linear Cost Function

y = a + bX
The dependent The independent
variable: variable:
the cost that is the cost driver
being predicted

The slope of
The intercept: the line:
fixed costs variable cost
per unit

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Bridging Accounting and Statistical
Terminology

ACCOUNTING STATISTICS

Variable Cost Slope or Slope Coefficient

Fixed Cost Intercept or Constant

Mixed Cost Linear Cost Function

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Linear Fungsi Biaya, Illustrated
Pameran 10.1 Contoh Linear Fungsi Biaya
Ulasan Klasifikasi Biaya
1. Pilihan biaya benda benda-berbeda dapat
menyebabkan pengelompokan berbeda dari biaya yang
sama.
2. Horizon waktu-semakin lama periode, semakin mungkin
biaya tersebut variabel.
3. Relevan rentang-perilaku diprediksi hanya dalam band
ini aktivitas.
keputusan manajemen yang lebih baik, prediksi biaya dan
estimasi fungsi biaya dapat dicapai hanya jika manajer
benar mengidentifikasi faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi
biaya.
Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Penyebab-dan-Effect Kriteria (1 dari 3)
• Isu yang paling penting dalam mengestimasi fungsi biaya
adalah menentukan apakah hubungan sebab-akibat ada
antara tingkat aktivitas dan biaya yang berkaitan dengan
itu.
• Tanpa hubungan sebab-akibat, manajer akan kurang
percaya diri tentang kemampuan mereka untuk
memperkirakan atau memprediksi biaya.
• ingat dari Bab 2 bahwa ketika hubungan sebab-akibat ada
antara perubahan dalam tingkat aktivitas dan perubahan
dalam tingkat dari total biaya, kita mengacu pada ukuran
aktivitas sebagai cost driver.
Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Penyebab-dan-Effect Kriteria (2 Haif 3)
• Sebuah hubungan sebab-akibat yang mungkin timbul
sebagai akibat dari:
 Hubungan fisik antara tingkat aktivitas dan biaya
 Sebuah perjanjian kontrak
 Pengetahuan tentang operasi
• Hanya hubungan-tidak sebab-efek hanya korelasi-
menetapkan hubungan ekonomi yang masuk akal antara
tingkat aktivitas dan biaya yang.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
The Cause-and-Effect Criterion (3 of 3)
• masuk akal ekonomi sangat penting karena memberikan
analis dan manajer keyakinan bahwa perkiraan hubungan
akan muncul berulang kali di set data lainnya.
• Mengidentifikasi biaya driver juga memberikan manajer
wawasan cara untuk mengurangi biaya dan keyakinan
bahwa mengurangi jumlah driver biaya akan
menyebabkan penurunan biaya.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Cost Drivers and the Decision-Making
Process
• To correctly identify cost drivers in order to make
decisions, managers should always use a long time
horizon.
• Costs may be fixed in the short run (during which time they
have no cost driver), but they are usually variable and
have a cost driver in the long run.
• Managers should follow the five-step decision-making
process outlined in Chapter 1 to evaluate how changes
can affect costs and product decisions.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Metode Estimasi Biaya
EMPAT METODE BIAYA ESTIMASI ADALAH:
1. Metode teknik industri
2. metode konferensi
3. Metode analisis akun
4. metode analisis kuantitatif
1. Metode tinggi-rendah
2. Regresi analisis
Ini Metode tidak saling eksklusif dan seringkali lebih dari
satu digunakan.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Metode Teknik Industri
• Memperkirakan fungsi biaya dengan menganalisis
hubungan antara input dan output dalam hal fisik.
• Termasuk studi waktu-dan-gerak.
• Sangat teliti dan rinci ketika ada hubungan fisik antara
input dan output, tetapi juga mahal dan memakan waktu.
• Juga disebut metode kerja-pengukuran.
• Beberapa kontrak pemerintah mandat penggunaannya.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Cara konferensi
• Estimates cost functions on the basis of analysis and
opinions about costs and their drivers gathered from
various departments of a company.
• Pools expert knowledge, increasing credibility.
• Because opinions are being used, the accuracy of the cost
estimates depends largely on the care and skill of the
people providing the inputs.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Account Analysis Method
• Estimates cost functions by classifying various cost
accounts as variable, fixed, or mixed in respect to the
identified level of activity.
• Typically, managers use qualitative rather than quantitative
analysis when making these cost-classification decisions.
• Widely used because it is reasonably accurate, cost-
effective, and easy to use.
• The accuracy of the account analysis method depends on
the accuracy of the qualitative judgments that managers
and management accountants make about which costs are
fixed and which are variable.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Analisis kuantitatif
• Menggunakan metode matematika formal untuk
menyesuaikan fungsi biaya pengamatan data masa lalu.
• Keuntungan: hasilnya objektif.
• Keuntungan: pendekatan yang paling ketat untuk
memperkirakan biaya.
• Challenge: requires more detailed information about
costs, cost drivers, and cost functions and is therefore
more time-consuming.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Six Steps in Estimating a Cost Function
Using Quantitative Analysis
1. Choose the dependent variable. (the cost to be
predicted and managed)
2. Identify the independent variable. (the level of activity or
cost driver)
3. Collect data on the dependent variable and the cost
driver.
4. Plot the data to observe the general relationship.
5. Estimate the cost function using two common forms of
quantitative analysis: the high-low method or regression
analysis.
6. Evaluate the cost driver of the estimated cost function.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
High-Low Method
• Simplest method of quantitative analysis.
• Uses only the highest and lowest observed values.
• “Fits”‪a‪line‪to‪data‪points‪which‪can‪be‪used‪to‪predict‪
costs.
• Three steps in the high-low method to obtain the estimate
of the cost function.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Steps in the High-low Method
(1 of 3)

Calculate the slope coefficient (the variable cost per unit of


activity).
Slope coefficient = Difference between costs associated
with highest and lowest observations of the cost driver /
Difference between highest and lowest observations of
the cost driver.
If we had high activity of 100 at cost of $2,500 and low
activity of 80 at cost of $2,100, our formula for variable cost
per unit of activity would be:
($2,500 - $2,100) / (100 – 80) or 400 / 20 = $20.00

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
langkah-langkah dalam tdia-Rendah
Tinggi Cara
(2 dari 3)

Langkah kedua adalah menghitung konstan (total biaya


tetap).
Total biaya baik dari tingkat aktivitas tertinggi atau terendah -
(Biaya Variabel per unit Kegiatan aktivitas X terkait dengan
total‪biaya‪di‪atas)‪=‪​​Biaya‪Tetap
Melanjutkan contoh kita, mari kita menghitung biaya tetap
menggunakan kedua tingkat tinggi dan rendah aktivitas:
Tinggi: $ 2.500 - ($ 20 x 100) = $ 500 biaya tetap
Low: $ 2.100 - biaya tetap ($ 20 x 80) = $ 500

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Steps in the High-Low Method
(3 of 3)

The third and final step in the high-low method is to


summarize by writing a linear equation:
Y = Fixed Costs + (Variable cost per unit of Activity * Activity)
or Y = FC + (VC/U * X)
In our example, our equation would look like this:
Y = $500 + ($20 * X)
Jika kita bertanya-tanya apa biaya akan berada pada 120
tingkat aktivitas, kita hanya akan pasang nomor yang untuk
X dalam persamaan kami: Y = $ 500 + ($ 20 * 120) atau Y =
$ 2.900
Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Regression Analysis Method
– Regression analysis is a statistical method that
measures the average amount of change in the
dependent variable associated with a unit change in one
or more independent variables.
– Regression analysis is more accurate than the high-low
method because the regression equation estimates
costs using information from ALL observations whereas
the high-low method uses only TWO observations.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Types Of Regression Analysis
• Simple regression estimates the relationship
between the dependent variable and ONE
independent variable
• Multiple regression estimates the relationship
between the dependent variable and TWO OR
MORE independent variables.
Regression analysis is widely used because it helps
managers understand why costs behave as they do
and what managers can do to influence them.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Analisis Regresi: Terminologi
• Goodness of fit menunjukkan kekuatan hubungan
antara pemicu biaya dan biaya.
• Istilah sisa mengukur perbedaan antara biaya
aktual dan perkiraan biaya untuk setiap observasi.
• The smaller the residual term, the better is the fit
between the actual cost observations and
estimated costs.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Contoh Regresi Model Plot
Pameran 10,6 Model Regresi untuk Manufacturing langsung Mingguan Tenaga kerja Biaya
dan Mesin-Jam untuk Rugs Elegan

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Mengevaluasi dan Memilih Driver Biaya
(1 dari 2)

Bagaimana perusahaan menentukan cost driver terbaik saat


mengestimasi fungsi biaya? Pemahaman tentang kedua
operasi dan akuntansi biaya sangat membantu. Berikut
adalah tiga kriteria yang digunakan:
1. masuk akal ekonomi
2. Goodness of fit
3. Signifikansi variabel independen

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Evaluating and Choosing Cost Drivers
(2 of 2)

QUESTION: Why is choosing the correct cost driver to


estimate costs important?
ANSWER: Identifying the wrong drivers or misestimating
cost functions can lead management to incorrect and costly
decisions along a variety of dimensions.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Cost Drivers and Activity-Based
Costing
Estimating cost drivers in an activity-based costing system
doesn’t‪differ‪in‪general‪from‪what’s‪been‪discussed.
However, since ABC systems have a great number and
variety of cost drivers and cost pools, managers must
estimate many cost relationships.
They will do so using the same methods, taking special care
with the cost hierarchy. If a cost is batch-level, for example,
only batch-level cost drivers can be used.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Nonlinear Cost Functions, Defined
• Cost functions are not always linear.
• A nonlinear cost function is a cost function for which the
graph of total costs is not a straight line within the relevant
range.
• Some examples of nonlinear cost functions follow.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Nonlinear Cost Functions, Examples (1 of
2)

1. Economies of scale (produce double the number of


advertisements for less than double the cost).
2. Quantity discounts (direct material costs rise but not in
direct proportion to increases in quantity due to the
nonlinear relationship caused by the quantity discounts).
3. Step cost functions—resources‪increase‪in‪“lot-sizes”,‪
not individual units.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Nonlinear Cost Functions, Examples (2 of
2)

4. Learning curve—a function that measures how labor-


hours per unit decline as units of production increase
because workers are learning and becoming better at
their jobs.
5. Experience curve—measures the decline in the cost per
unit of various business functions as the amount of
these activities increases. It is a broader application of
the learning curve that extends to other business
functions in the value chain such as marketing,
distribution and customer service.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Nonlinear Cost Functions, Illustrated
Exhibit 10.9 Examples of Nonlinear Cost Functions

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Jenis-jenis Kurva Belajar
Sekarang, kita akan melihat pada dua model kurva belajar:
• Rata-rata kumulatif-time model-kumulatif pembelajaran
Rata-rata waktu per unit menurun dengan persentase
konstan setiap kali kuantitas kumulatif unit yang diproduksi
ganda.
• Incremental Unit-time model-inkremental pembelajaran
waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk menghasilkan penurunan
unit terakhir dengan persentase konstan setiap kali
kuantitas kumulatif unit yang diproduksi ganda.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Sampel Kumulatif rata-rata-TModel ime
pameran 10.10 Model Pembelajaran kumulatif rata-Time untuk Rayburn
Perusahaan

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Contoh Satuan Incremental-TModel
Pembelajaran ime
pameran 10.11 Model Pembelajaran Incremental Unit-Waktu untuk Rayburn Perusahaan

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Model Pembelajaran Waktu
Plot Perbandingan
Pameran 10.12 Plot untuk Kumulatif rata-Time Learning Model dan Incremental Belajar
Unit-Time Model Rayburn Perusahaan

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Memprediksi Biaya Menggunakan Waktu
Alternatif Model Pembelajaran
Pameran 10.13 Memprediksi biaya menggunakan Pembelajaran Curves di Rayburn
Perusahaan

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Pengumpulan Data dan
penyesuaian Masalah
Database yang ideal untuk memperkirakan fungsi biaya
kuantitatif memiliki dua karakteristik:
1. Database harus berisi banyak observasi yang terukur
dengan andal dari pemicu biaya dan biaya yang
berkaitan.
2. database harus mempertimbangkan banyak nilai-nilai
yang mencakup berbagai untuk driver biaya.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Masalah Data (1 dari 3)
Manajer harus bertanya tentang masalah ini dan menilai
bagaimana mereka telah diselesaikan sebelum mereka
bergantung pada perkiraan biaya yang dihasilkan dari data.
1. Periode waktu untuk mengukur variabel dependen tidak
benar cocok dengan periode untuk mengukur pemicu
biaya.
2. Biaya tetap dialokasikan seolah mereka variabel.
3. Data yang baik tidak tersedia untuk semua observasi
atau tidak semuanya andal.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Masalah Data (2 Haif 3)
4. nilai-nilai ekstrem observasi muncul.
5. Tidak ada hubungan homogen antara pemicu biaya dan
biaya individual dalam biaya-variabel dependen kolam
renang. (Hubungan homogen ada ketika setiap aktivitas
yang biayanya dimasukkan dalam variabel dependen
memiliki pemicu biaya yang sama.)

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Masalah Data (3 dari 3)
6. Hubungan antara pemicu biaya dan biaya yang tidak
stasioner. Hal ini dapat terjadi ketika proses yang
mendasari yang dihasilkan pengamatan belum tetap
stabil dari waktu ke waktu.
7. Inflasi telah mempengaruhi biaya, driver biaya, atau
keduanya.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Syarat untuk Belajar- (1 dari 3)
SYARAT UNTUK MEMPELAJARI HALAMAN NOMOR
REFERENSI
Rekening metode analisis 398
Koefisien determinasi 420
metode konferensi 398
Konstan 394
Perkiraan biaya 396
fungsi biaya 393
prediksi biaya 396
model pembelajaran rata-waktu kumulatif 411
Variabel tak bebas 400
kurva pengalaman 411
Tinggi rendah metode 402

model pembelajaran tambahan satuan waktu 412

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Syarat untuk Belajar- (2 dari 3)
SYARAT UNTUK MEMPELAJARI HALAMAN NOMOR
REFERENSI
Variabel bebas 400
Metode teknik industri 398
Mencegat 394
kurva belajar 410
fungsi biaya linear 393
biaya campuran 394
multikolinearitas 428
regresi berganda 404
fungsi biaya nonlinier 409
Analisis regresi 404
istilah residu 404

semivariabel biaya 394

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Terms to Learn—(3 of 3)
TERMS TO LEARN PAGE NUMBER
REFERENCE
Simple regression 404
Slope coefficient 393
Specification analysis 423
Standard error of the estimated coefficient 421
Standard error of the regression 421
Step cost function 409
Work-measurement method 398

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Copyright

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen