Subgrades

Copyright© 2014 - ESH

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 Subgrade
 The foundation upon which the pavement
and base are constructed

Asphalt/Cement Concrete slab

Base / Subbase
Embankment

Natural soil Subgrade

Rigid layer
Subgrade Performance
 Load bearing capacity.
 The subgrade must be able to support loads transmitted from the
pavement structure. This load bearing capacity is often affected by
degree of compaction, moisture content, and soil type. A subgrade that
can support a high amount of loading without excessive deformation is
considered good.
 Moisture content.
 Moisture tends to affect a number of subgrade properties including load
bearing capacity, shrinkage and swelling. Moisture content can be
influenced by a number of things such as drainage, groundwater table
elevation, infiltration, or pavement porosity (which can be assisted by
cracks in the pavement). Generally, excessively wet subgrades will
deform excessively under load.
 Shrinkage and/or swelling.
 Some soils shrink or swell depending upon their moisture content.
Additionally, soils with excessive fines content may be susceptible to frost
heave in northern climates. Shrinkage, swelling and frost heave will tend
to deform and crack any pavement type constructed over them.

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Improvement to Subgrade
Performance
 Removal and replacement (over-excavation).
 Poor subgrade soil can simply be removed and replaced with high quality
fill. Although this is simple in concept, it can be expensive. Table 4.1
shows typical over-excavation depths recommended by the Colorado
Asphalt Pavement Association (CAPA)
 Stabilization with a cementitious or asphaltic binder.
 The addition of an appropriate binder (such as lime, portland cement or
emulsified asphalt) can increase subgrade stiffness and/or reduce swelling
tendencies.
 Additional base layers.
 Marginally poor subgrade soils may be compensated for by using additional
base layers. These layers (usually of crushed stone – either stabilized or
unstabilized) serve to spread pavement loads over a larger subgrade area.
This option is rather perilous; when designing pavements for poor
subgrades the temptation may be to just design a thicker section with
more base material because the thicker section will satisfy most design
equations

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Subgrade Preparation
 Foundation must provide:
 Assumed stiffness
 Uniformity
 Long-term stability
 Stable construction platform
 Has significant influence on smoothness
 Typically achieved by monitoring density and
moisture content during compaction
Subgrade Improvement
 Mechanical improvement (mixing in coarser
material)
 Excavation and replacement with select fill
 Stabilization (with lime, cement, lime-
flyash, asphalt)
 Reinforcement with geosynthetics
Frost Heave
 Formation of ice lenses in frost-susceptible
soils
 fine sands and silts
 low-plasticity clays
 Both winter frost heave and subsequent
spring thaw can cause pavement cracking
Frost Protection
 Replacing frost-susceptible soil with non-
frost-susceptible within depth of frost
penetration
 Covering frost-susceptible soil with sufficient
thickness of non-frost-susceptible soil
 Factors to consider: drainage, change of

grade, side slopes and ditches

Swelling Soils
 Some clays and shales are susceptible to
swelling (significant volume increase) when
sufficient moisture is available, especially
when an overburden pressure is removed
 southern and western US
 dry climates, low soil moisture contents

 pavement inhibits evaporation from soil

 excavation reduces overburden

 Swelling causes heaving and cracking

Swelling Protection
 Avoid cut sections in soils with known
swelling potential
 Avoid overcompaction on dry side of optimum
moisture content
 Lime stabilization to adequate depth may be

useful
 Minimize moisture variation (moisture
barriers or geomembranes may help)
Collapsing Soils
 Soils experiencing large decrease in volume
with increases in water content
 Treatment methods

 Modest depths: compaction with rollers, wetting

or inundation, and over-excavation and re-
compaction (with lime or cement)
 Thicker deposits: ponding, flooding, dynamic

compaction
Subgrade Characterization
(Subgrade Support)
 Subgrade materials are typically characterized by their
resistance to deformation under load, which can be either a
measure of :
 Strength
 the stress needed to break or rupture a material
 Stiffness
 the relationship between stress and strain in the elastic range or how
well a material is able to return to its original shape and size after
being stressed
 Three basic subgrade stiffness/strength characterizations are
commonly used :
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR),
 Resistance Value (R-value)
 Modulus of Subgrade reaction (k)
 Elastic (resilient) modulus
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 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
 The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is a simple strength test that compares the
bearing capacity of a material with that of a well-graded crushed stone.
 Introducing by California Division of Highway 1928, and be populated by O.J. Porter
 The basic CBR test involves applying load to a small penetration piston at a rate of 1.3
mm (0.05") per minute and recording the total load at penetrations ranging from 0.64
mm (0.025 in.) up to 7.62 mm (0.300 in.)

where:
x=material resistance or the unit load on the piston (pressure) for 2.54 mm (0.1") or 5.08 mm (0.2") of penetration
y=standard unit load (pressure) for well graded crushed stone
=for 2.54 mm (0.1") penetration = 6.9 MPa (1000 psi)
=for 5.08 mm (0.2") penetration = 10.3 MPa (1500 psi)
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CBR Calculation
Subgrade Type (RN 29)

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CBR Values (Typical)

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Field CBR using DCP

Correlation Between DCP & CBR :

log CBR(%)=2.81-1.32 log D

D=penetration (mm/blow)
Source :
Harrison, JA : Correlation Between CBR and DCP Strength Measurement of
Soils, Proc Institution of Civil Eng. Part 2, 83 (1987), 833-844
CBR Classification
 Design CBR
 Soaked Design CBR
 Unsoaked Design CBR
 Field CBR :
 DCP : Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
 placing piston and penetrated by truck load
 Undisturbed Soaked CBR, to obtained field CBR at
saturated soil and maximum swelling

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CBR Segmen Jalan (design)
Resistance Value (R-value)
 The Resistance Value (R-value) test is a material stiffness test.
The test procedure expresses a material's resistance to
deformation as a function of the ratio of transmitted lateral
pressure to applied vertical pressure. It is essentially a
modified triaxial compression test. Materials tested are
assigned an R-value
 The R-value test was developed by F.N. Hveem and R.M.
Carmany of the California Division of Highways and first
reported in the late 1940's. During this time rutting (or
shoving) in the wheel tracks was a primary concern and the R-
value test was developed as an improvement on the CBR test.
Presently, the R-value is used mostly by State Highway
Agencies (SHAs) on the west coast of the U.S.

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R-values Test

where:
R=resistance value
Pv=applied vertical pressure (160 psi)
Ph=transmitted horizontal pressure at Pv = 160 psi
D=displacement of stabilometer fluid necessary to increase horizontal pressure from 5 to 100 psi.
Some typical R-values are:
*Well-graded (dense gradation) crushed stone base course: 80+
*MH silts: 15-30 25
Resilient Modulus
 The Resilient Modulus (MR) is a subgrade material stiffness test. A material's
resilient modulus is actually an estimate of its modulus of elasticity (E).
While the modulus of elasticity is stress divided by strain (e.g., the slope of
the Figure plot within the linear elastic range) for a slowly applied load,
resilient modulus is stress divided by strain for rapidly applied loads – like
those experienced by pavements.

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Triaxial Test for Resilient Modulus
 In a triaxial resilient modulus test a repeated axial cyclic stress of fixed
magnitude, load duration and cyclic duration is applied to a cylindrical test
specimen. While the specimen is subjected to this dynamic cyclic stress, it is
also subjected to a static confining stress provided by a triaxial pressure
chamber. The total resilient (recoverable) axial deformation response of the
specimen is measured (see Figure 4.9) and used to calculate the resilient
modulus using the following equation

where:
MR (or ER)=resilient modulus (or elastic modulus since resilient modulus is just an
estimate of elastic modulus)
σd=stress (applied load / sample cross sectional area)
εr=recoverable axial strain = D L/L
L=gauge length over which the sample deformation is measured
D L=change in sample length due to applied load

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MR values (typical)

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MR dari
Backcalculation
Flexible Pavement
(AASHTO 93)
MR vs R-value (WSDOT)

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Strength/Stiffness Correlations
 A widely used empirical relationship developed by Heukelom
and Klomp (1962) and used in the 1993 AASHTO Guide is:
 ESG (or MR) = (1500) (CBR)
 This equation is restricted to fine grained materials with soaked CBR
values of 10 or less. Like all such correlations, it should be used with
caution.
 The proposed new AASHTO Design Guide will likely use the
following relationship:
 MR = 2555 x (CBR)0.64
 The 1993 AASHTO Guide offers the following correlation
equation between R-value and elastic modulus for fine-grained
soils with R-values less than or equal to 20.
 ESG (or MR) = 1,000 + (555)(R-value)

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Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (k)
 The modulus of subgrade reaction (k) is used as a primary input for rigid
pavement design. It estimates the support of the layers below a rigid
pavement surface course (the PCC slab). The k-value can be determined by
field tests or by correlation with other tests. There is no direct laboratory
procedure for determining k-value.
 The modulus of subgrade reaction came about because work done by
Westergaard during the 1920s developed the k-value as a spring constant to
model the support beneath the slab (see Figure below)

 The reactive pressure to resist a load is thus proportional to the spring deflection (which
is a representation of slab deflection) and k (see Figure 4.11):
where:
P=reactive pressure to support deflected slab
k=spring constant = modulus of subgrade reaction, ranges from about 13.5
MPa/m (50 pci) for weak support, to over 270 MPa/m (1000 pci) for strong
support
D=slab deflection
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Subgrade Models

Dense liquid ( k ) model

Elastic solid ( E ) model

 Subgrade Models

Dense liquid ( k ) model

Real soil

Elastic solid ( E ) model

 Plate Load Test
 The plate load test presses a steel bearing plate into the surface
to be measured with a hydraulic jack.

 The resulting surface deflection is read from dial micrometers

near the plate edge and the modulus of subgrade reaction is
determined by the following equation:

where:
k=spring constant = modulus of subgrade reaction
P=applied pressure (load divided by the area of the 762 mm (30 inch) diameter plate)
Δ=measured deflection of the 762 mm (30 inch) diameter plate 35
Static vs. Dynamic k
 Static k: the elastic portion of a soil’s
response to a static load
 Dynamic k: the elastic response to a dynamic
load
 a fast-moving wheel load
 an FWD load
K value steps,
1998 AASHTO Supplement
 K value methods
 correlation with soil type and properties
 backcalculation

 plate bearing tests

 Adjustment for fill and/or rigid layer

 Seasonal adjustment
K value steps, 1986/1993 AASHTO
Guide
 K of unprotected subgrade soil
 Composite (top-of-the-base) k
 Adjustment for rigid layer
 Seasonal adjustment
 Loss-of-support adjustment
Plate Bearing Tests
Direct measurement of
static elastic k value
new alignment
on subgrade soil
on test embankment
existing alignment
remove slab and base
 Plate Bearing Tests
 Repetitive loading test
ASTM D 1195, AASHTO T221
k = slope of pressure to elastic deformation
under 760-mm (30 in) load plate
Plate pressure, p

k = mean p / De

Dp De
Deflection, D
 Plate Bearing Tests
 Nonrepetitive loading test
ASTM D 1196, AASHTO T222
k = pressure/deformation ratio at 1.25 mm
(0.05 in) under 760-mm (30 in) load plate
Plate pressure, p

k=p/D

D = 1.25 mm (0.05 in)

Deflection, D
 Correlation of k to Soil Properties

Soil Density CBR MR E k

A-1-a, well 125 - 140 60 - 80 22 - 35 30 - 43 300 - 450

A-1-a, poor 120 - 130 35 - 60 22 - 31 30 - 38 300 - 400
… … … … … ...

A-2-4,5 gravelly 130 - 145 40 - 80 22 - 40 30 - 47 300 - 500

A-2-4, 5 sandy 120 - 135 20 - 40 22 - 31 30 - 38 300 - 400
… … … … … ...

A-4, silt 90 - 105 4- 8 < 11 6 - 18 25 - 165

A-4, mix 100 - 125 5 - 15 < 15 7 - 23 40 - 220
… … … … … ...
 Degree of Saturation Affects
k of Fine-Grained Soils
250

A-6
A-7-6
200 A-7-5
A-6 A-5
Subgrade k value (psi/in)

A-4
150
A-5 A-7-5
A-4
100
A-7-6

50

0
50 60 70 80 90 100

Degree of saturation (percent)

Backcalculation of k
Falling Weight
Deflectometer
(FWD)

existing pavement

new alignment on
similar soil
Backcalculation of k
 Backcalculation of k

Westergaard’s interior deflection equation:

P
D = ----- {(a/l)}
kl2

l = radius of relative stiffness:


4
E h3
l =
12 ( 1 - 2 ) k
 Backcalculation of k

} Load, P
radius, a
Deflection, D

AREA =  ( l ) , for given sensor configuration

Adjustments to Backcalculated k
Value
 Slab size adjustment usually needed
 Static k value needed for design:
 approximately = dynamic k / 2
 Different backcalculation equations for
deflections measured on AC-overlaid PCC
 Variations in embankment thickness and/or
rigid layer depth affect k
 Embankment and/or Rigid Layer
12 Thickness of fill (ft) Density of fill (lb/cu ft)
90 100 110 120 130 140 150

10

6
4
2

psi/in
600 400 200 600 psi/in
200 400
Adjusted k value

200
Enter with k for
< 10 ft natural subgrade

Depth to 400 1 ft = 0.305 m,

rigid layer 1 psi/in = 0.27 kPa/mm,
1 lb/cu ft = 159 N/cu m
> 10 ft
psi/in