Ch.

# 28 Characterization of Particulate Solid Properties

Balance
Sieves
Sieve shaker
 What is a Particle?
A sub-microscopic, localized matter to ascribe several physical or
chemical properties such as volume or mass.

Such as granular, crushed, powdered, subatomic, microscopic,

nanomaterial.
A miniature part of matter,(human hair 1:70 part of
a micron and a bacteria is bigger than 0.2 micron);
A very small speck of solid matter,
 Unit of matter of indeterminate dimensions and
volume.
 Generally particles are classified in 3 main
categories,
 Classification of Particulate Materials
Materials can also be Classified on The bases of
1 ) Chemical Composition
2 ) Physical behavior
3 ) Mechanical Properties of the Constituent particles.
The fallowing properties are usually considered to classify Particulate
materials,
Particle Shape Mechanical Properties
Particle Size Charge Properties
Surface Properties Microstructure
 Physical properties
Importance of particle size …???
Reactivity dependence Solubility dependence
on Particle Size on Particle Size
 Particle Distribution Factors

Important Factors
With perspective of
Chemical Engineering

i) Particle Shape
ii) PARTICLE SIZE
Particle Shape (Regular or irregular)
1-) Regular shape particles can be described precisely
by its shape and dimension.

2-) Irregular shape particle, can not be described

conveniently due to irregularity of the particle shape &
dimension.
Dp = equivalent/nominal diameter
Vp = volume of one particle
Sp = surface area of particle
PARTICLE SIZE
 In general, diameter is specified for equi-dimensional particles.
 Most of the particles are not equi-dimensional, therefore they can not
be specified by a single dimension “diameter”.
 Therefore the concept of equivalent sphere has been introduced.

Equivalent spherical diameter

(ESD)
Size of an irregular shaped
object is expressed in terms
of diameter of a sphere having
equivalent volume that
exhibits identical properties
(e.g. aerodynamic,
hydrodynamic )
 A nominal size or trade size is a size "in name only" used for identification.
 The nominal size may not match due to minor variations in any dimension
of the product,
 Size used for the general identification of the actual size of the particle.
 Nominal size gives us a domain within which actual size lies with little bit
tolerance.
 It will approximately be equal to actual size, but need not to be exactly the
same as particle size.
 e.g: 100 ± 0.05 m rod is available.
Sphere
 A sphere is a perfectly round geometrical object
in three dimensional space that is the surface on
a completely round ball.
 For a perfectly spherical diameter, the value
for Sphericity equals to 1.
 In case of Irregular shape particles, nominal
value of equivalent diameter is taken.

SPHERICITY of irregular objects-

• A measure of how closely the shape of an object

approaches that of a mathematically perfect sphere.
• For example, the sphericity of the balls inside a ball
bearing determines the quality of the bearing, such
as the load it can bear or the speed at which it can
turn without failing.
Physical properties of materials and systems can be categorized as;
Either intensive or extensive quantities, according to how the
properties change when the size (or extent) of the system changes.
 Equivalent Spherical Diameter:
 Diameter of an irregular shape object is the diameter of a sphere of equivalent volume.

i. An intensive property is a bulk property,

ii. It is the physical property of the system
iii. Do not depends upon the size or the amount of material in the system.
iv. e.g: temperature, density, hardness of the object etc.
Intensive Properties:
Properties that does not depend upon the size or the amount of material in the
system, e.g: temperature, density, hardness of the object etc.
Extensive Properties:
Properties that depend upon the size or the amount of material in the system,
e.g: mass, volume etc.
 International Union of Pure and Applied
Equivalent Spherical Diameter of Particles ( ESD) Chemistry (IUPAC)

In science, ( ESD) of an irregularly shaped object is

the diameter of a sphere of equivalent volume.
According to the IUPAC definition,
The equivalent diameter of a non-spherical particle
is equal to a diameter of a spherical particle that
exhibits identical properties (e.g., aerodynamic,
hydrodynamic, optical, electrical) to that of non-
spherical particle.
ESD of Particles is used in the Stokes' law.
The Stokes' law :
“theforce required to move a sphere
through a viscous fluid at a low uniform
velocity is directly proportional to the
velocity and radius of the sphere.”
 Equivalent spheres in comparison with Particle dimensions:
 Based upon the measurement techniques, the particles are related to equivalent
sphere diameters by 7 different aspects,
a. The sphere of the same volume of the particle.
b. The sphere of the same surface area as the particle.
c. The sphere of the same surface area per unit volume.
d. The sphere of the same area when projected on a plane normal to the direction of
motion.
e. The sphere of the same projected area as viewed from above when lying in a
position of maximum stability (as with a microscope).
f. The sphere which will just pass through the same size of square aperture as the
particle (as on a screen).
g. The sphere with the same settling velocity as the particle in a specified fluid.
Mixed Particles and SIZE ANALYSIS

 If a sample having particles of uniform diameter = Dp,

 The total volume of the particles will be = (m/ρP ), (representing mass and
density of the particles),
 Since the volume of one particle = Vp,
 Total volume ‘V’ of N particles = V = Vp.N
 The total number of particles in sample = N = m/ ρpVp
 Total surface area of the particles is given by,
 Mixed particle size and size analysis

 Above equations are applicable to mixtures having particles of various sizes &
densities.
 The mixture is sorted into fractions, each fraction have constant density and
approximately constant size.
 Each fraction is then weighed, or the individual particle can be counted or
measured by number of methods.
 Information from such a particle size analysis is tabulated to show the mass or
number fractions in each size increment as a function of average particle size in
the increment.
 An analysis tabulated in this way is called a differential analysis.
 The results are often presented in histogram as shown in the figure.
Description of populations of particles

 Particle population is described in terms of Particle size distributions.

 Cumulative Size Distribution.
 Frequency Size Distribution.
 Specific surface area of mixture

 If the particle density ρp and Sphericity Φs are known, the surface area of
particles in each fraction can be calculated and added to give the
specific surface, Aw (The total surface area of the unit mass of particles):

 For deriving this equation, it has been assumed that Sphericity and
density of the mixture is constant.
 Where xi = mass fraction in a given increment,
Dpi = average diameter (taken as arithmetic average of the smallest and
largest particle diameters in increment).
 Average particle size
 The average particle size for a mixture of particles is defined in several
different ways.
 i) Volume surface mean diameter Ds:

ii) If number of particle Ni in each fraction

is known, instead of mass fraction xi, then:
 Arithmetic mean diameter:
NT = number of particles
in the entire sample

 Mass mean diameter:

 Volume mean diameter:

 Total volume of the sample
 Divided by number of particles

 For sample consisting of uniform particles these average diameters are, of

course, all the same. For mixture containing particle of various sizes, however,
the several average diameters may differ widely from one another.
 Number of particles in mixture

 The volume of any particle is proportional to its "diameter" cubed.

a = volume shape factor

 For sphere the value of a is 0.5236 and for short cylinder it is 0.785.
Assuming that a is independent of size, then:
SCREEN, SIEVES OR MESHES
• To remove the oversized particles.
• To break agglomerates or "de-lump".
• Separation can be either dry or wet media.
• Wet screening is more efficient, but drying of
the product add cost
 Sieve / Screen analysis
• Sieves are made of woven wire screens.
•Openings are square.
•Screens are identified by Mesh No.
•Mesh No. is the numbers of opening per
linear inch.

Area of opening in any screen

= 2 x Area of opening in the next
smaller screen.

Mesh dimension of any screen

Screens dimensions are = 1.41 x Mesh dimension of next
standardized by Tyler smaller screen.
 SCREEN, SIEVES OR MESHES
• Screen sizes vary from 76mm to 38μm

• Meshes are identified by number of holes per

lin. inch, e.g. 30 mesh, Dp=1\30=0.033 in.
• Area of openings in any one screen in the series = 2x area of
openings in the next smaller screen
• Screen are stacked, smallest mesh at the bottom and the largest at the top
(bottom most screen is a solid pan)
• 14/20 : through 14 mesh and on 20 mesh or -14+20

• Tyler standard or U.S. standard screen scale

 Indicates the
screens of closer
sizes, having a ratio
of diameters of 2
successive screens
1 : (2)1/4 instead of 1 :
(2)1/2
 Sieving or Screening
A sieve is used
i. To process individual batches of different sizes of particles.
ii. To sort and improve the quality of the products,
iii. For continuous flow of materials,
Sieving or Screening
 Screens or sieve analysis is used to measure the size (and size
distribution) of particles in size range of 0.0015 and 3 inch.
 Woven wire screens, Silk, Plastic cloth, perforated or punched plate.
 Openings are in the form of squares.
 Each screen is identified in meshes per inch.
 A stack of screens is arranged with the smallest mesh at the bottom
and the largest one at the top.
 Vibratory motion is produced to accelerate separation of particles.
 Particles retained on each screen are then removed and weighed
to draw the Cumulative and Frequency distribution curves.
 Sieving
 Data of screen analysis are tabulated to calculate mass fraction of each
screen as a function of the mesh size range of the increment.
 The notation 14/20 means “through 14 mesh and on 20 mesh”.
 Typical screen analysis is given in next slide.
 First column: mesh size,
 second column: width of opening of screen,
 third column: mass fraction of total sample that is retained on that screen xi (where i is
the number starting from the bottom of the stack),
 fourth column: averaged particle size Dpi (since the particle on any screen are
passed immediately by the screen ahead of it, the averaged of these two screen are
needed to specify the averaged size in that increment).
 Fifth column: cumulative fraction smaller than Dpi.
(4.699 + 3.327)/2

(1 – 0.0251)
Description of populations of particles
 Particle population is described in terms of Particle size distributions.
 Cumulative Size Distribution.
 Frequency Size Distribution.
Mass quantities of sample of
particles
Different distributions
 Example 28.1
 The screen analysis shown in the table applies to a sample of
crushed quartz.
 The density of the particles is 2,650 kg/m3 (0.00265 g/mm3).
 The shape factor are a = 0.8 and φs = 0.571.
 For the material between 4-mesh and 200-mesh in particle size,
calculate
 Aw in square millimetres per gram and Nw in particles per gram.
 DV, Ds, Dw and Ni for the 150/200 mesh increment.
 What fraction the total number of particles is in the 150/200-mesh
increment?
PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS

Some common diameters used in microscope analysis are statistical

diameters, including:
 Martin’s Diameter: Length of line that bisects the particle.
 Feret’s Diameter: Distance between two tangents on two opposite sides
of the particles.
 Shear Diameter: Particle diameter obtained using an image shearing
device.
Sauter Diameter

 It is defined as, “the diameter of the sphere that has the same
volume-surface area ratio as the particle of interest”.
 It is normally represented by D[3,2].

𝒅𝑺𝑻 = 1൘ µ3,𝒊
σ𝑵
𝒊=1 𝒅
𝒎,𝒊
 Properties of masses of particles
 Masses of solid particles, especially when the particles are dry and
not sticky, have many of the properties of a fluid.
 Exerted pressure on the sides and walls of a container depends on
density of the particles and the filled height of a silo,
 In homogenous masses the ratio of the normal pressure to the
applied pressure, pL/pV, is a constant K’, which is the characteristic
of a material.
 However because the particles interlock under pressure and
cannot slide over one another until the applied force reaches and
appreciable magnitude.
Properties of masses of particles
 Mass, color, shape, volume, and density are some physical properties, they
flow through openings or down a storage vessel.
 Fine particles behaves like fluids (flow through the channels under gravity
from high rise storage vessels) but differ from liquids and gases in several
ways.
 Unlike most of the fluids, granular solids and solid masses permanently resist
distortion when subjected to a moderate distorting force.
 Particles exert appreciable friction with in the layers of particles of against
the walls of containers,
 The excessive friction may cause failure or stops the flow of particles,
 Particles exert pressure in all directions but it is minimum in the
direction at right angles to the applied pressure.
 Interlocking
Interlocking of particles is part of static friction mechanisms of particle interaction –
i. MECHANICAL INTERLOCKING - the resistance is purely mechanical.
ii. COHESIVE INTERLOCKING –
• Resistance due to Cohesive resistance, e.g. wet soil particles
• The particle cohesion is because of the van der Waals forces ,.
iii. CHEMICAL BOND INTERLOCKING- chemical bonds and electrostatic attraction create
interlocking but it is beyond our scope.
 Mechanical behaviour of particles

 Mechanical properties of the particles plays

a role in static or dynamic conditions,
specially when stresses are applied.
 Important Mechanical properties e.g.
elasticity, tensile strength, elongation,
hardness and fatigue limit.
 Some of the materials important for
chemical engineers are metals, ceramics,
glasses, polymers, biomaterial, composites
& cellular materials.
 In process industries particulate matters are
classified as hard & abrasive, tough
&rubbery, soft & fragile, dusty & cohesive,
free flowing or sticky etc.
 These parameters classify the flow
characteristics of particulate matter.
 Mechanical behaviour of particles
A granular material is a collection of discrete, macroscopic particles
with different morphology and mechanical properties.
 Basic characteristics that affect Mechanical behaviour of the particles is
loss of energy due to.
i. two particles when they interact with each other or
ii. with the walls of the storage vessels
iii. interlocking affinities of the particles,
iv. Stickiness tendency of the grain particles,
v. Degree of compression of the packed material.
Mechanics of particles is usually independent of particle size until the grains
become very small and the material is no longer free flowing.
The Flow Property Particulate Matter
• The flow property of fine solid particles is divided into 2
classes;
i. Cohesive ( wet clay do not flow freely)
ii. Non- Cohesive ( grains, dry sand, plastic chips)
• Flow also depends on other factors, Void-age,
Agglomeration, Interlocking,

• Agglomeration may occurs due to mechanical

interlocking, surface attraction, Electrostatic attraction,
effect of moistures, Temperature fluctuations.
• Shear stresses of the particles also plays a vital role in
flow of particles
 Role of shear stresses in particles mechanics

 A shear stress (stress parallel to the surface of the material) applied at

the surface of particles;
 Stress is transmitted throughout a static particles until failure occurs.
 Failure limit depends on the density or degree of packed particles .
 The density of a fluid is a unique function of temperature and pressure
but density/ bulk density of solid particle remains constant mostly.
 The bulk density increases with the degree of packed particles which is
low for the loosely packed particles as compared to tightly packed
particles using vibrating or tamping machines.
 Piling Behavior of Particulate Materials
 When granular solids are piled up to a flat surface, the sides
of a the pile are at a definite reproducible angle with the
horizontal.
 This angle αr, is called the angle of repose of the material.
 For free flowing granular solids αr is often between 15O and
30O.
ANGLE OF REPOSE
• The steepest angle at which a sloping surface formed
of loose material is stable.
• "the angle of repose will vary locally according to the
mechanics of shape and strength"
ANGLE OF REPOSE (αr)
 The steepest angle between the sloping
surface of particles along the horizontal axis
& heap of loose material remains stable.
 For free flowing granular solids αr lies
between 15O to 30O.
 “ (αr) depends on the shape, strength &
other mechanical properties"
 K’ – value for masses of particles

 K’ (normal pressure/applied pressure) lies between 0.35 and

0.6 dry solid particulate matter .
 For Cohesive solids, the value of K’ approaches to zero.
 Cohesive solids, such as wet clay, are characterized by their
reluctance to flow through openings.
 Angle of repose and K’ play significant role during storage
and conveying of solid particulate.
 Storage and Conveying of Solids
 In materials processing industries, particulate matter are stored Indoors or
outdoors in large piles or heaps,
 Outdoor storage are unprotected and usually deteriorate due to ambient
conditions e.g. moisture, rains, storm, soluble materials may be leached out.
 For indoor storage of particulate solids, confined vessels are used which are
known as bins or silos.
 Out-flow / recovery of particulate matter from the bins or silos is a major
operative problem,
 Engineers have to design bins/silos for economical filling & discharge system
to ensure a continuous flow of particulate solid in bulk.
 Cohesive materials are removed by using dragline or tractor shovel.
 Bulk of materials are mechanically transported for which Conveyors are used
 BINS and SILOS
• A silo serves sort of like a coffee thermos: tall,
skinny, seals tight and protect materials from
moistures.
• Silos often are blue or the color of concrete.
• Bins are vented, silver, corrugated steel
structures larger in diameter than silos and
have varying heights
• Hoppers are funnel-shaped vessels used to
move material from one container to another
one or for temporary storage before feeding
solids to a process.
• Friction between the wall and solid particles
may cause interlocking of the particles
which hinder the flow throughout the mass.
The flow of material stored in silos is of two main patterns:
funnel flow (core flow) and mass flow.
i. In mass flow, the entire material is in motion during discharge.
ii. In funnel flow, movement occurs only through a channel which is surrounded by non-
flowing material.
 • Conveyors are especially useful for safe transportation of heavy
Conveyors or bulky materials.
• Conveyor systems allow quick and efficient transportation of
materials,
• very popular in the material handling and packaging industries
• a variety of options are available including the hydraulic,
mechanical and fully automated systems,

 Common devices for transportation include; Types of conveyor systems

•Gravity conveyor with &
i. closed belt for dust free transportation with zipper without rollers
like fasteners, •Pneumatic conveyor
ii. various kinds of drag and flight conveyors. •Belt /Screw /Chain/ Wire mesh
Bucket / Plastic conveyors.
 Conveyors of all kinds include a return leg that carries •Flexible conveyors.
the empty belt or chain back from the discharge to the •Vertical/ Mechanical conveyors
loading point.
 Vibrating conveyors, Pneumatic conveyors and screw
conveyors have no return leg but only operate over
relatively short distances.
 Pressure in bins and silos
 The masses of solids exert force on the walls and the bottom of the
bins.
 Pressure exerted on the floor of the container is maximum,
 The actual pressure from the solids depends on the density and bulk
density of materials and Value of K’ for the solids,
 The coefficient of friction between the solids and the vessel wall can be
classified as:

i. Static friction is friction between two or more solid objects under that
are not moving relative to each other e.g. static friction can prevent
an object from sliding down a sloped surface.

ii. Coefficient of kinetic friction, The coefficient of static friction, typically

denoted as μs, is usually higher than the coefficient of kinetic friction