GOOD MORINING

CASTING PROCEDURES AND

DEFECTS

PRESENTED BY:
GUIDED BY:
DR.M.RASAGNA
DR.P.KARUNAKAR PG 2ND YEAR
DR.UMRANA FAIZUDDIN
DR.ASHISH JAIN
CONTENTS
• Introduction
• History
• Objectives of Casting
• Wax pattern removal
• Sprue formers
• Crucible formers
• Casting ring liners
• Investing
• Burnout procedure
• Casting machines
• Cleaning the casting
• Casting defects
• Conclusion
• References
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION
• Casting:Casting is defined as something that has been cast in a mold, an
object formed by the solidification of a fluid that has been poured or injected
into a mold (GPT-9).

• Casting is the process by which a wax pattern of a prepared tooth is

fabricated and converted to its metallic replica(ROSENTEIL).

• Casting is the process by which a wax pattern of a restoration is converted to

a replicate in a dental alloy(CRAIG)-13TH EDITION.

• Casting is a process of forming objects by pouring molten metals in molds that

are cooled to cause solidification(WILLIAM J.OBREIN)-3RD EDITION.
• Casting procedure:it is a process of obtaining a metal duplicate of a missing tooth
structure by pouring molten metal into a mold of a required form &allowing it to
solidify to obtain a metallic duplicate.

• Lost wax techinque:it is so named because a wax pattern of a restoration is

invested in a ceramic material, then the pattern is burned out (lost) to create a
space into which molten metal is placed or cast.

• Castability:the ability of an alloy to completely fill a mold.

HISTORY 
• 3000 B.C. - Copper was cast in Mesopotamians.
• 1 st Century A.D. -Ecuador (the oldest dental casting were
gold alloys).
• 11 th Century A.D. -Theophilus(Lost wax moulding process was
first described).
• 1558- Cellini attempted the use of wax and clay for preparation of
castings.
• 1884-Agulihon de saran used 24k gold to form inlay.
• 1897-Philbrook described a method of casting metal filling.
• 1907-introduction of lost wax techinque by W.H.TAGGART.
• Taggart was unable to overcome the problem of casting shrinkage which resulted in restorations
which were undersize.

• Lane –high percentage of silica (75% approx) plus plaster of paris,heated to about 650 C.

• 1901 –Van horn-wax pattern invested at a temperature equal to mouth temperature.

• 1929-Weinstein added boric acid to customary investment mixtures.

• 1930-33-Sweeney, paftenbarger –use of cristobalite as a refractory in dental casting investment.

• 1930-Carl Scheu,discovered the phenomenon known as hygroscopic setting expansion.

• 1937-Goldberg-wax with 0.1% for direct wax techinque,0.38% in indirect
techinque.
• 1942-Sonder-advocated lining with soft asbestos.
• 1945-George D .Estes-vaccum investing techinque.
• 1949-Moore ,Walt-developed phosphate bonded investments.
• 1950-development of resin veeners for gold alloys.
• 1959-Asgar & Peyton-flaring at the sprue wax pattern junction.
• 1959-strickland et al-imp. Of the type , shape location & direction other
than the size of the sprue.
• 1959-Morrison and warmick-ethyl silicate refractory material for dental
use.
• 1980-introduction of all ceramic technology.
Objectives of Casting
• To heat the alloy as quickly as possible to completely molten condition.

• To prevent oxidation by heating the metal with a well adjusted torch.

• To produce a casting with sharp details by having adequate pressure to

the well melted metal to force into the mold.
Steps in making casting
• Preparing the wax pattern
• Spruing and surface treatment of the completed wax
patterns
• Investment of the wax patterns
• Burn out/thermal treatment of the investment -wax pattern
complex
• Casting or injection molding
• Cleaning & polishing
Preparing the wax pattern

• Two fundamental ways to prepare a wax pattern for a tooth 
restoration:
• Direct method
• Indirect method
Direct method
• Pattern is prepared on a tooth in the mouth.
• Type 1-medium wax -direct techinque.

Open Closed
method method
  DIRECT OPEN TECHINQUE
• Introduced by Volland.
• Wax pattern prepared without a matrix band.

DIRECT CLOSED TECHINQUE

• Introduced by Sturrock
• Wax pattern prepared with a matrix band.
Indirect techinque
• Type 2 (inlay wax) is used.
• Wax pattern is made on the die.
• More commonly used techinque.
Methods of indirect techinque

• Dipping method
• Addition method
• Softening in warm water
REMOVAL OF THE WAX PATTERN
• Direct pattern:
 Along with Sprue former
Hook it with an explorer point and rotate around the cavity
In Mod use a staple pin.
• Indirect pattern:
• Lubricate the die
• Sheet of washed rubber dam
increases friction & helps in removal.
• Right hand fingers hold pattern & left
hand die-die pulled from pattern
by bending fingers of left hand.
• SPRUE:it is a channel or hole  through which plastic or metal is poured
or cast into a gate or reservoir and then into a mould.(GPT-9)
• SPRUE FORMER:A wax, plastic or metal used to form the channel or
channels which allows the molten metal to flow into a mold to make
a casting.(GPT-9)
• SPRUE BUTTON:the material remanining in the reservoir of the
mold after a dental casting.(GPT-9)

Sprue former
 Purpose of a sprue former

• To form a mount for the wax pattern

• Create a channel-elimination of the wax during burnout.
• Channel-ingress of molten alloy during casting.
• Compensate for alloy shrinkage during solidification.

Anusavice 11th edition page no:321

TYPES OF SPRUE FORMERS
WAX
Large restorations
e.g: Rpd
frameworks

PLASTIC/RESIN
Smaller
restorations

Metal sprue
Smaller restorations
e.g: inlays
• According to process
Prefabricated
Custom made
• According to shape
Solid
Hollow(round)
Factors to be considered
• Diameter
• Length
• Position
• Attachment
• Venting
• Reservoir
Sprue diameter
• The diameter of the sprue should be equal to the thickest
portion of the wax pattern.
• Too large-Distoration
• Too small-Localized shrinkage porosity(suck back porosity)
• Range -10-18 gauge(2.6-1.0mm)
Sprue former diameter

Large Crowns,Molar and metal ceramic 10 gauge(2.5mm)

crowns

Small crowns,premolars, partial 12 gauge(2 mm)

coverage restorations

Large inlay 14 gauge(1.6mm)

Small inlay 16 gauge(1.2mm)

William  J O' Brein, 3rd edition

Sprue length

• Depends on the length of the casting ring.

Too Short-gases cannot

be adequately vented

Too Long-Sprue solidy

first leading to shrinkage
porosity
• Therefore,sprue length should be adjusted so that the pattern is
approximately 6mm(1/8th-1/4th inch) from the open end of the ring.

Gypsum bonded investments : 6mm

Phosphate bonded investments : 3-4mm
Large inlay : 4-5mm
Small inlay : 3-4mm
Sprue location
• Usually,attached to the Bulkiest,non-critical part of the
restoration.

• Normally, the largest noncentric cusp is used.

• Marginal ridges

• Proximal contacts

• Full veneer crown-maxillary buccal and mand lingual

cusp.

• Partial veneer crown-attached to the cusp that

encompasses the preparation.
Sprue former Direction

• Directed away from any thin or

delicate parts of the pattern because
molten metal can fracture investment
in this part.
• Should not be attached at 90
degree angle –Turbulence within the
mold cavity and porosity.
• Sprued at 45 degree angle -
satisfactory casting.
Sprue former Attachment
• Asgar& Peyton(1959)- Flaring should occur at
the sprue/wax pattern.

• Should be attached at greatest cross-

section of the pattern.

• Flared-High density gold alloys.

• Restricted-low density alloys.

Number
• Usually single sprue is preferred for small castings.
• When two thick sections of a pattern are connected by a thin part of
wax pattern, 2 separate sprues are attached to each thick portion.
Shape
• The shape of the sprue former should be straight.
• High turbulence of alloy causes porosity
Reservoir
• Added 1-2mm below the wax pattern.
 Importance of Reservoir
• Prevent Localized shrinkage porosity.
• Reservoir remains molten to furnish liquid alloy into the mold as it
solidifies.
Venting
• Small auxillary sprues or vents have been recommended to improve
the casting of thin patterns.
Gases escape during casting.
Compensate for the shrinkage during solidification.
Ensure that solidification begins in critical areas by acting as a heat
sink.
Spruing techinque

• Direct
• Indirect
Crucible Former

• The base to which a sprue former is attached while the wax pattern is
being invested in refractory investment;a convex rubber ,plastic, or
metal base that forms a concave depression or crucible in the
refractory investment (GPT-9)
• Sprue is attached to the crucible former which constitutes the base of
the casting ring during investing.

Steep Shallow
Sided Cone Cone
Available as 
• Rubber
• Metallic
• Plastic
Casting Ring Former
• Casting ring is a metal or silicone tube in which a refractory mold is
made for casting dental restorations.(GPT-8)

• Used to confine the fluid investment around the wax pattern while
the investment sets.
TYPES
• According to Shape :
Round
oval
• Complete Ring :
 Rigid
• Metal 
• Plastic

 Flexible
• Rubber
Split Ring
Metal
Plastic
Casting Ring Considerations
• The internal diameter of casting ring should be 5-10mm in diameter
than the widest measurement of the pattern and about 6mm higher.

• For Single Crown/Inlay-Small rings are used; Diameter-32mm .

• For large Fixed Partial Denture – 63mm round/oval shaped casting are
used.
Casting Ring liners
• A ring liner is placed on the inner surface of the
casting ring.

• Helps in investment expansion by providing

the space for it.

• No liner-expansion is towards the center of the

mold thus distorting the casting.
Functions of Ring liner
• Mold Expansion

• Thermal insulator

• Separating media
Selection of liner

Material of liner

Cellulose paper
Fibrous ceramic
aluminosilicate
Ceramic cellulose
combination
GC new casting ring liner
Asbestos liner Nobil liner
Cellulose papers

• Shows adequate water absorption.

• Burn during burnout procedure.
• Placed 3.25 mm short of the ends of the ring,to keep the investment
in contact with the ring.
• This restricts longitundal setting and hygroscopic expansion.
Ceramic liners
• Non-absorbent,therefore they can be used dry.
• Studies have shown that fibers from ceramic lining
material can dissolve quickly in lung tissues and so have
little harmful effect.
• Disadvantage:

Reducing its working

time,increasing setting
When using ceramic
and thermal expansion
liners,vaccum investing
to an uncontrolled
should not be done
extent.
Techinques of application of liner
• To ensure uniform expansion,Cut the liner to fit the inside diameter of
the casting ring with no overlap.

Dry liner
techinque Dry liner is tacked in positioned with sticky wax.

Wet liner
techinque Lined ring is immersed in water &excess
water is shaken off.
• Using a thicker liner material or 2 layers of liners provides even greater
expansion and also affords a more unrestricted normal setting expansion
of the investment.

• The recommended minimum thickness of the ring liner is 1 mm.

• The liner should be placed 3-4 mm short of the end of the casting ring
for better uniform expansion and to decrease distortion of the wax
pattern.
 Ringless casting system  

• It is designed to increase the productivity by achieving the

consistently accurate results without the time consuming
steps.

• This method uses paper or plastic  casting ring and

is designed to allow unrestricted expansion.

• Provides better thermal expansion.

• Usually done for cast partial denture and for

phosphate bonded investments.
 Preparation of the wax pattern

Wax pattern should be cleaned of any debris, grease or oils.

A commerical wax pattern cleaner or a diluted

synthetic detergent or debubblizer is used.
Debubblizer
• Citric acid
• Sodium 2-phenylpropane –2-sulfonate
• Propane –2,2-diol –also known as propylene glycol.
• Thin film of pattern allowed to dry.
Reduces surface tension of wax.
Better wetting of the surface.

• Wax pattern should not stand for more than 20-30 min before
being invested.
Investing

The Process of covering or enveloping,wholly or in part, an object

such as denture,tooth , or wax form, crown ,etc.,with a suitable
investment material before processing,soldering or casting.(GPT-9)

Process by which the sprued wax pattern is embedded in a

material called an investment.(Craig)

An investment can be described as a ceramic material which is

suitable for forming a mould into which molten metal or alloy is
cast.(Vimal Sikri)
Investment materials
• Based on the type of binder
Gypsum bonded:
• For conventional casting of gold alloy inlays,onlays,crowns, 
Fpds.
Phosphate bonded:
• For metal ceramic restorations.
• For pressable ceramics & for base metal alloys.
Ethyl-silicate bonded:
• For casting of removable partial dentures with base metal
alloy(cobalt  based or nickel based alloys).
Requirements of an ideal investment materials
• Easily manipulated.
• Sufficient strength at room temperature.
• Stability at higher temperature.
• Sufficient expansion.
• Beneficial casting temperatures.
• Porosity.
• Smooth surface.
• Ease of divestment.
• Inexpensive.
Investing procedure

Hand
Vaccum tech investment
inque or brush
techinque
Brush techinque
In this techinque,pattern is first painted with surface tension
reducer ,the surface must be completely wet.

Add investment powder to the liquid in the bowl.

Attach the vaccum hose to the bowl,evacuate the bowl,mechanically

spatulate
Coat the entire pattern with investment,pushing the material ahead
of the brush from a single point
When the investment reaches the level of pattern,tilt the ring several
times ,tilt the ring several times to cover and uncover the
pattern,thereby minimizing the possible entrapment of air
Vaccum techinque
 Hand spatulate the mix

With crucible former& pattern,attach the ring to the

mixing bowl

Attach the vaccum hose& mix

Invert the bowl and fill the ring under vibration

Remove the vaccum hose before shutting of the mixer

Remove the filled ring and crucible former from the bowl
Advantages of vaccum investing
• Removes air bubbles.

• Produces smooth castings.

• Increase tensile strength of the investment.

• 95% of castings free of nodules.

• Removes all of the gaseous by products of chemical reaction of investment

material.
• The incidence of bubble free casting with different investing techinque
 Open investing-17%
 Vaccum investing-95%

• The incidence of nodules on casting is more in hand mixing than

vaccum mixing.Application of surface tension reducing agent
decreased the nodules.(Johntson, IJP,1992;5:424-433).
Setting of investment
• In open air
• Hygroscopic techinque
• Controlled water added techinque
Open air
• Set in open air for 1 hour.
• Setting time 1 hr for GBI and PBI

• Hygroscopic techinque
• Immersion of the investment in 37 degree water.
• Altered by :
• Decreased W:p-increased HSE.
• Increased delay in time of immersion-decreased HSE.
• Increased temp.of water-increased HSE.
Controlled water added techinque
• Desired amount of expansion is retained by the water added.
• A soft flexible rubber ring is employed &invested normally.
• A specific amount of water is added on the top of investment &
allowed to set at room temp.
Grinding the
investment
• Carefully grind or scrap the shiny skin
off the end of the investment just prior
to burn out.
• Removes the impervious layer, opening
the pores of the investment.
• The rubber crucible former is
removed and any loose particles from
the investment are blown off.
• Ring placed in furnance for burn-out
procedure.
Burn out ovens
• Manual.
• Semiautomatic
• Fully programmable controllers
Burn out procedure
• Elimination of the wax from the mould of set investment material is
reffered to as burn-out.

• Introduced by taggart in 1907.

• Investment set min           1 hour.

• Ideally kept in oven when the mold is wet.

• Delayed for several hours or overnight ,kept in humidor.

Objectives of burn-out

• Complete elimination of the wax.

• To increase the temp. of the mold and the investment comparable to
fusion temp. of casting alloy.
• For thermal expansion of the investment and wax pattern mold for
compensation shrinkage
 Remove the crucible former

Remove the metal sprue if used

Placing the ring with sprue facing down in

furnance  on ceramic tray

Ring is then inverted with the sprue hole

faced upward
 Burn out techinques

Mould heating

Dry heat burnout techinque Moist heat burnout techinque

Dry heat burnout techinque
• Placed in a Cold furnance.
• Temperature of the furnance is  raised at a constant
rate to reach 1250 F in 1 hour.

Moist heat burnout techinque

• Ring with invested pattern is soaked in water for about 5
min 
• Placed in furnance preheated to about 900 F(480 C) for
about 20 min,and temp raised slowly to about 1290 F(700
C) for about 30 min.
Burn out temperature for various investments

Type of investment Type of expansion Maximum temp. Time

Gypsum bonded Hygroscopic 468 C 1 hr
Gypsum bonded Thermal Slow heating to 650-700 C 1 hr
Phosphate bonded Thermal 700-1030 c 45 min
Ethyl silicate bonded Thermal 1090 c-1180 c
Shrinkage compensation
Setting expansion of
• Gold alloys-1.5% investment

• Ni-cr alloys-2.4% Hygroscopic

exapansion

Wax pattern
expansion

Thermal expansion
Heat application 

Hygroscopic- low
heat techinque
High –heat expansion
techinque
Accelerated casting method
• Conventional techinques-1 hr bench set for investment,
• 1-2 hrs for wax elimination.

• Accelerated techinque-15 min bench set

• 15 min wax burnout(815 degrees)

• Most commonly employed for cast post and core restorations

Casting
• Something that has been cast in a mold; an object formed by the
solidication of a fluid that has been poured or injected into a
refractory mould (GPT-9).
• Casting procedure: it is a process of obtaining a metallic duplicate of a
missing tooth structure by pouring molten metal into a mold of a
required form & allowing it to solidify to obtain a metallic duplicate.
• The procedure involves three basic steps and each has
certain objectives and goals:
• Fusing the metal alloy.
• Transporting the thermally treated investment to the
casting machine.
• Forcing/casting  the molten  metal into the investment
mold.
Fusing the metal alloy 
Objectives:
A proper energy source
A proper container in which cast material may be fused or
softened.
A proper enviroment for casting.
Proper energy source

• Natural gases(mainly
propane) and air
Gas fuels • Natural gas and oxygen
mixture
• Acetylene and oxygen
mixture
• Induction system
Electric  • Resistance heating system
source 
Gas fuels
Natural gas(propane) Lowest energy of all Small inlays,type 1
+ air sources(2680 C) and type 2 alloys
Natural gas +oxygen Supplies high temp. Class 1 ,class 2 and
(2850 C) class 3 cast alloys
Acetylene +oxygen Supplies high temp. Base metal alloys
mixture (3140 C) like Co-Cr ,Ni-Cr
alloys,Rpds.
Electric source
• Heat energy is produced when electric current is passed through a
conductor depending upon the voltage supplied across it.
• Used for cast ceramics and class 4 alloys.
• A proper container in which cast material may be fused or
softened
Container-should not contaminate and unaffected by the heat.
Casting crucibles are the containers in which cast material may be
fused or softened.
Type of crucible Type of alloy
clay High Noble alloys
Carbon or Graphite High noble alloys ,Higher
fusing gold based metal
ceramic alloys

zirconia -Alumina High fusing alloys

Quartz or Silica High fusing alloys
Proper enviroment for casting

• Fusing energy using gas fuels necessitates blow torch:

• Multi-orifice
• Single-orifice
• Zones of blow torch flame:
Flux in casting

• A reducing flux is used in melting the alloy.

• 50% boric acid,50% fused borax increases fluidity ,reduces potential for
oxidation.
• Flux may be added :
• to minimize porosity.
• To increase fusing of metal
• Prevent oxidation.
Carrying investment to casting machine
• Done using forceps,tongs or tweezer
• Casting ring held-sprue facing down.
• During this time,the color of casting should be cherry red.
Forcing the metal alloy into the mold
• Resisting forces are present in the investment, mold,molten
alloy.

Surface tension
Casting of the
force alloy+resistance
offered by the
gas in the mold
• Casting machines provide the means for transferring the molten alloy
from the crucible to the mold.
 Alloys are melted in one of the four following ways

• In a separate crucible by a torch flame,and cast centrifugally.

• Electrically by resistance heating or induction furnance , then casting into
the mold centrifugally by motor driven or spring action.
• By induction heating,centrifugally by motor or spring action.
• Vaccum arc melted.cast by pressure in argon atmosphere.
Classification of casting machines
• Based on methods of casting the machines are :

Centrifugal
force type

Air pressure
type

Vaccum type
• Based on heating system employed

Torch
melted

Induction
melted

Arc melted
ACC.to William  J.O' Brein

Pneumatic
force type
Centrifugal
or Air
force type
pressure
type
Acc to SH Soratur
• Centrifugal casting machine
• Steam pressure machine-solbrig machine
• Air pressure machine-Hereus
• Spring wound electrical resistance machine-melting furnance-casting
machine
• Induction melting casting machine
Torch melting/centrifugal casting machine

• Types:
Motor driven or spring driven
Vertical rotating or horizontal rotating machine
• Principle:
• Works on the principle of broken arm.
Electrical resistance-heated casting machine

 Current is passed through a resistance

heating conductor.

 Automatic melting of alloy occurs in

graphite or ceramic curcible

 Used for metal-ceramic prosthesis

 Induction melting machine

Melted by an induction field that develops

within a crucible surrounded by a water cooled
metal tubing.

Used for base metal alloys,Co-Ch

alloys,titanium alloys
Direct current Arc melting machine
• The direct-current arc is produced between two electrodes: the alloy
and the water cooled tungsten electrode.
• The temperature within the arc exceeds 4000° C, and the alloy melts
very quickly.
• This method has a high risk for overheating the alloy
Vacuum- or Pressure-Assisted Casting
Machine
• For this method, the molten alloy is heated to the casting temperature,
drawn into the evacuated mold by gravity or vacuum.
• subjected to additional pressure to force the alloy into the mold.
• For titanium and titanium alloys, vacuum arc heatedargon pressure
casting machines are required.
Cleaning the casting
• After the casting has solidified,the ring is
removed and quenched in water as soon as
the button exhibits a dull-red glow.
• Advantages of quenching:
• The noble metal is left in an
annealed condition for
burnishing,polishing,and other similar
procedures
• Water contact hot investment,violent
reaction ensues resulting in a soft
granular investment that can be easiliy
removed
Divestment

• It refers to the removal of casting

from investment mold.
• Hold the ring for about ¼ inch.
• Bulk –finger pressure.
• Sprue is removed from the
restoration using a
carborundum seperating
disk /abrasive disk mounted in a
hand piece.
 Pickling
• Often the surface of casting appears dark
with oxides and tarnish,such surface can be
removed by a process known as pickling.
• Solutions used-
• 50%(dil) HCL.
• 50% sulfuric acid and potasssium
dichromate
• Aqua regia-HCL+ nitric acid(1:3)
Sandblasting

• The process of altering the surface of a through the use of abrasive particles
propelled by a compressed air or other gases(GPT-9)
• Aluminum oxide
• Two types of sandblasting:
• Automatic sandblaster
• Blast cabinets
Finishing and Polishing

• Done to remove small irregularities on the surface.

• Fitting surface-blebs removed using sharp chisel or finishing bur.
• Brown or white aluminium oxides are used.
• Final finishing-various oxides of tin and aluminium in conjunction with
small rag and chamois.
• Polishing of gold casting with carbide burs,green stones,pink stone
• Base metal-aluminium oxide,tin oxide
 Laws of casting
• Naylor (1986) described in detail the "Laws of Casting" as they pertain to
spruing, investing and burnout, and casting. The seventeen laws are as
follows:
1.Attach the sprue to the thickest cross-sectional area of the wax pattern.
2.Orient the margins of the wax pattern to the right and mark their location.
This assures that the centrifugal, rotational, and gravitational forces on the
molten alloy are used to their proper advantage.
3.Place the wax pattern in a cold zone of the investment mold, and position
the reservoir in the heat center of the ring.
4.The reservoir must have enough molten metal available to fill the shrinkage
that occurs within the restoration

5.Do not cast a button if a runner bar, or other internal reservoir, is used.

6.Turbulence must be minimized, if not totally eliminated. Use smooth gradual

pathways. Avoid sharp turns, restrictions, and impingement on flat surfaces.

7.Select a casting ring of sufficient diameter and length to accommodate the

pattern or patterns to be invested. The patterns should be spaced 1/4" apart
with at least 3/8" of investment between the patterns and the ring liner.
8.The surface tension of the wax pattern must be reduced. This enables the
casting investment to wet the patterns more completely.

9.Weigh all casting investment powder and measure all investment liquids to
assure a precise and consistent liquid-powder ratio

10. Eliminate the incorporation of air in the casting investment during

mixing and pouring. Vacuum mixing is highly recommended
11.Allow the casting investment to set completely before beginning the burnout
procedure.
12.Use a burnout technique that is specific for the type of patterns used (wax
versus plastic) and suitable for the particular casting alloy selected
13.Adequate heat must be available to properly melt and cast the alloy
selected for use.
14.Use the REDUCING ZONE of the casting torch to melt the alloy and NOT
the oxidizing zone when torch casting.
15.Enough force must be provided to cause the liquid alloy to flow into the
heated mold, regardless of the type of casting machine used
16.Cast to your margins. In a centrifugal casting machine the margins should
be oriented downward and to the right.
17.Allow the ring to bench cool before quenching.
Casting defects
Definition
• A casting defect is an irregularity in the metal casting that is
undesired,some defects ca be tolerated while others can be
repaired,otherwise they must be eliminated.

• Casting failures should be an exception not a rule.

Classification of  casting defects.

• Defects in castings can be classified under four headings(According to

Anusavice)
• (1) Distortion
• (2) Surface roughness and irregularities
• (3) Porosity
• (4) Incomplete casting or missing detail
According to Rosenstiel
• Roughness
• Nodules
• Fins
• Incompleteness
• Voids or porosity
• Marginal discrepancies
• Dimensional inaccuracies
Distoration

• Related to the distoration of the wax

pattern.
• Causes:
• can occur from the time of pattern
preparation to the time of investing due
to stress relaxation.
• distoration of wax pattern may occur
during investment procedure.
• Distortion can occur during spruing the
pattern because of the heat transferred to
the pattern.
To Minimise the distortion :
• A wax pattern should not be subjected to temperature extreme
that may cause stress relief and distortion in shape
• Patterns should never be left off the die.
• Invested as soon as possible after fabrication
• Effect of wax melting range and investment liquid concentration on the
accuracy of a three-quarter crown casting
• Michio Ito et al,The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry Volume 87, Issue 1,
January 2002, Pages 57–61

• Conclusion:
• Within the limitation of this study,casting shrinkage was affected by the
type of wax used
• The higher the softening temperature, the larger the casting shrinkage.
 Surface roughness& Surface irregularities
• Surface roughness is defined as relatively finely spaced surface
imperfections whose height, width, and direction establish the
predominant surface pattern.
• Surface irregularities are isolated imperfections, such as nodules, that
are not characteristic of the entire surface area

(Phillip’s science of dental materials-11th edition by Kenneth

J.Anusavice.page338)
Causes
• Air bubbles
• Water film
• Rapid heating rates
• Under heating
• Liquid : Powder ratio
• Prolonged heating
• Casting pressure
• Composition of Molten alloy
• Foreign bodies
• Carbon inclusion
• Impact of molten alloy
• Pattern position
Cause Result Prevention
1. Air bubbles: Nodules on the casting • Use vaccum mixing
• Become attached  Large nodule- Air techinque
trapped during • A wetting agent may be
to the pattern investing helpful in preventing the
during or subsquent Multiple nodules collection of air bubbles
to the investment – inadequate vaccum on the surface of the
during casting pattern.
procedure 
 Improper brush • Applied in a thin
techinque
layer,Air dry
Lack of surfactant
Nodules on occlusal
surface – Prolonged
vibration after pouring
2.Water films Minute ridges or  Avoid movement
• Creates veins on the surface vibration of
a space in between wax of casting. pattern after
and investment investment.
• Causes  Appropiate L/p
 Too high L/P ratio ratio
 Pattern slightly moved,jarred  Intimate contact
or vibrated after investing. of the investment
 Painting procedure does material with
not result in intimate contact wax
of an investment with
the pattern
3.Rapid Heating rates Fins or spines on the  Mold should be heated
casting gradually. At least 60min
 Flaking of the should elapse during the
investment heating of the
 water or steam investment- filled ring
from room temperature
pours into the mould to 700°C.
 surge of steam  Greater the bulk of the
or water -some investment, more slowly
of the salts used it should be heated
as modifiers into
the mold.
 Salts are left as
deposits on the
walls after water
evaporates and
leads to surface
3.Under heating  Black casting  Heating the
 Incomplete  Voids,porosity,blow investment ring for
elimination of the holes. adequate times &
wax residues.  Co Prevents temp.  
 Due to too short oxidation of the
heating time or if surface of casting
insufficient air is gold & results in
available in the bright shiny casting.
furnance.
4.prolonged heating black casting Mold should  be
 Disintegration of the Rough surface heated to the casting
investment,walls of the
temp. And never
mold roughned. 
 Decomposition of sulfur higher.
compounds.
5.Composition of the  Surface roughness Investment meets
investment ADA specification
 Ratio of the binder no.2
to the quartz
 Coarse silica
6.Liquid/Power ratio  Investment too thi Accurate
 Too little water ck,cannot be applie measurement
 High L/P ratio d to wax pattern.
7.Increased temp. Of Surface roughness Avoid over heating
the alloy: the alloy
 Attacks investment Color of the molten
surface gold alloy should be
no lighter than light
orange
8.Casting pressure TOO high pressure- Gauge pressure to 
rough surface of the 0.10 to 0.14 Mpa in air
casting. pressure casting
Too low casting- machine  or 15 psi
Incomplete casting. 3-4 turns of spring in
centrifugal casting
machine
9..  Reflected as a  Proper spruing.
raised area on the Avoid direct impact of the
Impact of molten alloy
casting, and molten alloy at an angle of
 Fracture or abrade the
prevents complete 90 to investment surface.
mold surface 
seating of the  A glancing impact
regardless of its bulk
casting is preferred as it is
less damaging &
avoids undesirable turbule
nce.

10.Pattern position • Should not place too

 Expansion of the wax close together
much greater than the • Should not be place many
investment,causing patterns in the
breakdown or cracking same plane.
of the investment • Spacing between the
11.foreign bodies Surface roughness Avoid carrying pieces of
• Rough crucible former /  Surface voids investment loosened
carelessness on removal of Sharp well defined during removal of
sprue former - Pieces of deficiencies or surface sprue former and
investment carried into voids investment.
the mold with the metal

•Bits of carbon from flux

•Sulfur contamination :
investment breakdown at
high temperature / high
sulfur content of the torch
flame
12.Carbon inclusions • Results in the
• Carbon, as form a formation of
crucible , an carbides or visible
improperly carbon inclusion.
adjusted torch or a
carbon-containing
investment, can be
absorbed by the
alloy during
casting. 
 3.porosity
• Presence of voids or pores within a structures

Internal porosity
• Weakens the casting

External porosity
• Surface roughness

• Internal porosity extends to the surface causes surface discoloration

 Porosities in noble metal alloy
castings may be classified as
follows:
I. Solidification defects -
• A. Localized shrinkage porosity
• B. Microporosity

II. Trapped gases -

• Pinhole porosity
• Gas inclusions
• Subsurface porosity.

III. Residual air

 Localized shrinkage porosity
Cause Appearance Remedy
Premature termination  A Localized shrinkage Using sprue of
of flow of molten metal void will occur in the correct thickness.
during solidification last portion of the Attaching sprue at
Linear contraction-1.25% casting that solidifies. thickest part of wax
Incorrect sequence of  Usually occurs at pattern.
cooling sprue-casting junction Flaring the sprue at
Occurs externally the point of
attachment.
Placing the reservoir
close to the wax
pattern.
 Suck back porosity
• A hot spot created by the Hot metal impinging on the
mold wall near the sprue.
• This hot spot causes the local region to freeze last and
results in suck back porosity.
• Occurs on the occlusoaxial or incisoaxial line
angle.
• Prevention:
• Flaring the point of sprue attachment.
• Reducing the mold-metal temperature differential ie
lowering casting temperature by 30°C
 2.Microporosity 
Cause Appearance Remedy

Generally present in •Appears in the form Increase in melt temp.

fine gray alloy Increase in mold temp.
of small, irregular Not a serious defect.
castings. voids 
 Solidification is too
•Usually this defect is
rapid for micro voids to
seggregate to the
not detectable unless
liquid pool. the casting is
 Casting temp. is too low sectioned.
Pin hole porosity Do not overheat the
• Metals Smaller, irregular metal beyond the
dissolve/occlude gases Black melting point
when molten
•On solidification, the
absorbed gases are
expelled, resulting in pin
hole porosity
•When severely
contaminated, appears
black in color
 Gas inclusion porosity Spherical contour  pre-heating the gold
 Gas occluded from a - Larger alloy on a graphite
Poorly adjusted torch flame crucible (used alloy)
 Use of mixing or  Correctly adjusting &
oxidizing zones of the positioning torch
flame flame during melting

Sub- Surface porosity By controlling the rate at

• May be caused by the which the molten metal
simultaneous nucleation enters the mold.
of solid grains & gas
bubbles at the first
moment that the alloy
freezes at the mold
walls.
 Entrapped air/ Residual air/Back pressure porosity
Cause Appearance Remedy
• Inability of air in the  On inner surface of • Proper burn-out.
mold to escape casting ; Large • Sufficiently high
through the pores in concave casting pressure.
the investment. depressions • Adequate L/P ratio.
• When casting /  Found in a “pocket” • Thickness of the
mold temperature at the cavity surface investment between
is so low that of a crown or MOD the tip of the pattern
solidification occurs casting. and end of the ring
before entrapped should not be greater
air can escape. than 6mm.
 Incomplete casting
Cause Appearance Remedy

•Infficient venting & • Rounded incomplete  Casting pressure

insufficient casting margins atleast 4sec
pressure Temperature of
•Incomplete elimination alloy should be
of wax residues raised higher than
• Low L/P ratio its liquidus
• Viscosity of molten temperature
metal & due to
insufficient heating
 CONCLUSION
• The wax pattern is the precursor of the finished cast restoration.
• As it is duplicated exactly through investing and casting,the final
restoration can be no better than its wax pattern.
• A succesful result depends upon careful handling of the wax pattern.
• Strict adherence to standarized procedures ensure a good and long
lasting cast restoration oblierating for costly remakes and annoyance to
the patient and the operator.
'' A DENT IN YOUR MERCEDES,
A CRACK IN YOUR MOBILE,
A SCAR ON A BEAUTIFUL FACE,
A FRACTURE IN A TOOTH,
NOT SO DESIRABLE… RIGHT???''

NOR ARE CASTING DEFECTS

 REFERENCES
1. Phillip’s science of dental materials-11th edition by Kenneth J.Anusavice
2. Contemporary fixed prosthodontics-4th edition by
Rosenstiel.Land.Fujimoto
3.Restorative dental materials - 11th edition by Robert G.Craig, John M
Powers
4.Dental Materials & Their Selection-3rd Edition, William J O`brien
5.Materials In Dentistry. Principles & Applications- 2nd Edition, Jack L
Ferracane
6.Essentials Of Dental Materials- S H Soratur
THANK YOU