OP-AMP

Ideal characteristics and applications

 Ideal Op Amp
VDD
i v VSS  v0  VDD
+
- vo
i v
VSS

1) v0  Av  v  v 
The open-loop gain, Av, is very large, approaching infinity.

2) i  i  0
The current into the inputs are zero.
 Ideal Op Amp with Negative
Feedback
v +
vo
v -

Network

Rules of Op Amps:

1. The output attempts to do whatever is necessary to

make the voltage difference between the inputs zero.

2. The inputs draw no current.

 Ideal Op Amp

• Zin is infinite
• Zout is zero
• Amplification (Gain) Vout / Vin = ∞
• Unlimited bandwidth
• Vout = 0 when Voltage inputs = 0
• Zero input offset voltage (i.e., exactly zero
out if zero in).
 Open Loop vs Closed Loop
• A closed loop op-amp has feedback from the output to the
input, an open loop op-amp does not

Open Loop Closed Loop

 Inverting Amplifier

Op-amp as an inverting amplifier

Voltage at node 1 (inverting) = voltage at node 2 (non-inverting )

KCL at node 1:
(Vi – 0) / R1 = (0 – Vo) / R2
Vi / R1 = - Vo / R2

Vo = - R2
Vi R1
 Inverting Op-Amp
• Amplifies and inverts the input voltage
• Closed loop op-amp
• Non-inverting input is determined by
both voltage input and output
• The polarity of the output voltage is
opposite to that of the input voltage
• Voltage input is connected to inverting
input
• Voltage output is connected to
inverting input through a feedback
resistor
• Non-inverting input is grounded
 Non - Inverting Amplifier
Voltage at node 1 (inverting) = voltage at node 2 (non-inverting )
KCL at node 1:
(0– Vi) / R1 = (Vi – Vo) / R2

-(Vi / R1) = (Vi / R2) – (Vo / R2)

Vo / R2 = (Vi / R2) + (Vi / R1) = Vi 1 + 1
R2 R1

Vo / Vi = R2 1 + 1 Noninverting amplifier
R2 R1
 Non-Inverting Op-Amp
• Amplifies the input voltage by a
constant
• Closed loop op-amp
• Voltage input connected to non-
inverting input
• Voltage output connected to inverting
input through a feedback resistor
• Inverting input is also connected to
ground
• Non-inverting input is only
determined by voltage output
 Problems
Determine both the input and output voltage in this circuit:
 Problems
Calculate all voltage drops and currents in this circuit, complete with arrows
for current direction and polarity markings for voltage polarity. Then, calculate
the overall voltage gain of this amplifier circuit (AV)
Voltage Follower / Buffer Amplifier

Vo = Vi
Hence, gain = 1
 Differential Amplifier
R2 i1
Current into op amp is zero
i1 R1 v
v1 -
v  v v2
v vo
+
R1
v1  v
i1  R2
R1
v  v0
i1 
R2 v1  v v  v0

R2 R1 R2
v  v2
R1  R2 R2 R2
v1  v2 v2  v0
R1  R2 R1  R2

R1 R2
 Differential Amplifier
R2 i1
R2 R2
v1  v2 v2  v0
R1  R2 R  R2
 1 v1
i1 R1 v
R1 R2 - vo
v
v2 +
2
R1
R2 R2 R R2
v0   v1  v2  2
v2
R1 R1  R2 R1  R1  R2 

R2 R2  R2 
v0   v1  1   v2
R1 R1  R2  R1 
R2
v0   v2  v1 
R1
 Summing Amplifier
Rf
R1
V1


R2
Vout
V2 +

• Much like the inverting amplifier, but with

two input voltages
Vout = Rf(V1/R1 + V2/R2)
• if R2 = R1, we get a sum proportional to (V1 + V2)
• Can have any number of summing inputs

15
Summing Amplifier
Similarly,Amplifier
Summing

i1 + i2 + i3 – i4 – 0 = 0

Output voltage
Summing amplifier
Averaging amplifier

An averaging amplifier is a variation of the summing amplifier in which all input

resistors are equal. The feedback resistor is the reciprocal of the number of
inputs times the input resistor value.

For example, if there R1 Rf

VIN1
are three input 10 kW 3.3 kW
resistors, each with a R2
VIN2 
value of 10 kW, then 10 kW VOUT
Rf = 3.3 kW to form an +
R3
VIN3
averaging amplifier. 10 kW
Summing amplifier-problem
Current-to-Voltage Converter
v
+
vo
v - ii  i f
ii
v  v  0
RF if
0  v0  i f RF
v0  ii RF

Transresistance  v0 ii   RF

 Current to Voltage Converter

A current to voltage converter will produce a voltage

proportional to the given current. This circuit is required if
your measuring instrument is capable only of measuring
voltages and you need to measure the current output.
However, if the input impedance of your instrument is low
compared to the converting resistor then the following
opamp circuit should be used.
Current to Voltage Converter
 Current to Voltage Converter

• Transresistance Amplifiers are used for low-power applications to

produce an output voltage proportional to the input current.

• Photodiodes and Phototransistors, which are used in the production

of solar power are commonly modeled as current sources.

• Current to Voltage Converters can be used to convert these current

sources to more commonly used voltage sources.
VCIS (Transconductance Amplifier) Summary
Voltage to Current Converter
iL iL
Load Load

i1 R1 i1 R1
_ _

+ OR +
vin + vin +
_ _ +
vin
_
General Equations:
iL = i1 = v1/R1
v1 = vin
The transconductance, gm = io/vin = 1/R1
Therefore, iL = i1 = vin/R1 = gmvin
The maximum load resistance is determined by:
RL(max) = vo(max)/iL
 HALFWAVE RECTIFIER

When Vout < V’out, diode will be on and the circuit reduces to voltage follower
in which Vout = Vin. Because of high gain of op amps the input cut in voltage
will be reduced to Vγ/Avo,
 Disadvantages of using precision
diode circuit

When the input voltage is negative the diode is off,

a large differential voltage appear between inputs
of op-amp which is not desirable.

when the input voltage exceeds saturation voltage

the output clamps at saturation voltage.
HALFWAVE RECTIFIER
 HALFWAVE RECTIFIER

When Vi>0 V
Then the diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased, The diode D1 shorts the output of
the opamp to the inverting terminal. Using the concept of virtual ground the
inverting terminal will be at ground potential (Non-inverting terminal will be at 0
v ). Hence the output of opamp will be zero volts.

When Vi<0 V
The diodes D1, D2 will be reverse biased and are open. The combination s
resembles a inverting amplifier with gain -Rf/R1. Hence the output of opamp
V0 = -Rf/R1 (Vi)
The output will be positive as Vi is negative.
FULLWAVE RECTIFIER
 FULLWAVE RECTIFIER

When v in is positive then v' = negative, D1 is ON and D2 is virtual ground at the

input to (l). Because D2 is non-conducting, and since there is no current in the R
which is connected to the non-inverting input to (2), therefore, V1 =0.

Hence, the system consists of two OPAMP in cascade with the gain of A1 equal to
(-R / R1) and the gain of A2 equal to (-R / R) = -1.

The resultant at voltage output is

vo = (R / R1 ) vin > 0 (for vin > 0 voltage output of (1) )

Consider now next half cycle when v in is negative. The v' is positive D1 is OFF
and D2 is ON. Because of the virtually ground at the input to (2) V2 = V1 = V
FULLWAVE RECTIFIER
INTEGRATOR
INTEGRATOR
Integrator
Practical op-amp integrator
Integrator-frequency response

The frequency (fb) at which the gain of

integrator is 0dB is given by
The gain limiting frequency of the (fa) of the
practical integrator is given by-
DIFFERENTIATOR
DIFFERENTIATOR
Differentiator
Differentiator-frequency response
 op-amp peak detector
Peak detector detects and holds the most positive value
of attained by the input signal prior to the time when
the switch is closed.
 Peak detector

The operation can be explained as follows assume the

switch is open and if
a)Vout < Vin the op amp output V’ is positive so that the
diode conducts and the capacitor charges to the input
value at that instant as it forms a voltage follower circuit.
b) When Vout > Vin, op amp output V’ is negative and the
diode becomes reverse biased.
Thus the capacitor charges to the most positive value of
input.
 Comparator
• The comparator is an op-amp circuit that compares
two input voltages and produces an output indicating
the relationship between them. The inputs can be two
signals (such as two sine waves) or a signal and a
fixed dc reference voltage.
• Often used as an interface between digital and analog
signals.

Problem
 Symbol & Transfer
Characteristics
Vin
+
Vout
Vref _

Vout Vout

VH VH

Vin Vin
0 Vref 0 Vref
VL VL

Ideal transfer characteristic Practical transfer characteristic

45
 Threshold Comparators

 The voltage at which a comparator changes from one level to

another is called the crossover (or threshold) voltage.
 Its value can be adjusted by adding resistors, as shown in the
non-inverting comparator.

RF
Vref

R1
+
V+
V- _
VS Vin
R Vout

46
 From the superposition theorem, the voltage at V+ is given by

R1 RF
V  Vref  Vin
R1  RF R1  RF

Ideally, the crossover will occur when V+ = 0. That is

R1Vref  RFVin  0
which gives the low threshold voltage VLt = Vin as

R1
VLt   Vref Vout
RF
V
H
Thus, the output voltage becomes high (VH) at the
positive saturation voltage. VL
t 0 Vi
(+Vsat) when V+ > 0 (i.e. Vin > VLt) n

VL 47
 If the input signal is connected to the inverting terminal,
the output will change from high (VH) to low (VL).

The high threshold voltage VHt = Vin is given by

R1
Vout VHt  Vref
R1  RF

VH
Thus, the output voltage becomes low (VL) at the
negative saturation voltage :-
VHt
Vin (-Vsat) when Vin > V+ (i.e. Vin > VHt)
0

VL
48
 ZERO REFERENCE
 The simplest way to build a comparator is to connect op-amp
without feedback resistors.

Vout
+V
_
Vin +Vsat
Vout
+
Vin
0
-V
-Vsat
a) Comparator with zero reference
b) Input/output response

49
 ZERO REFERENCE
• If a sinusoidal input voltage applied to the non-
inverting input of this circuit, the result will look
like this:

Vin

0 t

Vout +Vsat

0 t

-Vsat

50
 ZERO REFERENCE

• The output is a two-state output, either +Vsat or –Vsat

• This comparator can be used as a squaring circuit
(i.e. produce square wave from sine wave).

51
Schmitt Trigger Op-amp Circuit
• The open-loop comparator from the previous two
slides is very susceptible to noise on the input
– Noise may cause it to jump erratically from + rail to – rail
voltages
• The Schmitt Trigger circuit (at the left) solves this
problem by using positive feedback
– It is a comparator circuit in which the reference voltage is
derived from a divided fraction of the output voltage,
and fed back as positive feedback.
– The output is forced to either VPOS or VNEG when the
input exceeds the magnitude of the reference voltage
– The circuit will remember its state even if the input
comes back to zero (has memory)
• The transfer characteristic of the Schmitt Trigger is
shown at the left
– Note that the circuit functions as an inverter with
hysteresis
– Switches from + to – rail when vIN > VPOS(R1/(R1 + R2))
– Switches from – to + rail when vIN< VNEG(R1/(R1 + R2))
Schmitt Trigger Op-amp Example
• Assume that for the Schmitt trigger circuit shown at
the left, VPOS/NEG = +/- 12 volts, R1 = R2, and vIN is a
10V peak triangular signal. What is the resulting
output waveform?
• Answer:
– The output will switch between +12 and –12 volts
– The switch to VNEG occurs when vIN exceeds
VPOS(R1/(R1 + R2)) = +6 volts
– The switch to VPOS occurs when vIN drops below
VNEG(R1/R1 + R2)) = -6 volts
– See waveforms at left
• Consider the case where we start out the Schmitt
Trigger circuit with vIN = 0 and vOUT = 0 (a quasi-
stable solution point for the circuit)
– However, any small noise spike on the input will push
the output either in the + or – direction, causing v+ to
also go in the same direction, which will cause the
output to move further in the same direction, etc.
until the output has become either VPOS or VNEG.
 Astable Multivibrator-Square wave
generator
• The Square Wave Generator Using Op amp means
the astable multivibrator circuit using op-amp, which
generates the square wave of required frequency.
It looks like a comparator with hysteresis (schmitt
trigger), except that the input voltage is replaced by
a capacitor. The circuit has a time dependent
elements such as resistance and capacitor to set the
frequency of oscillation.
Astable Multivibrator-Square wave
generator
 Astable Multivibrator-Square wave
generator
• When Vo is at +Vsat, the feedback voltage is called the
lower-threshold voltage VLT and is given as

• When Vo is at —Vsat, the feedback voltage is called

the lower-threshold voltage VLT and is given as
Astable Multivibrator-Square wave
generator
Astable Multivibrator-Square wave
generator
Astable Multivibrator-Square wave
generator
 Triangular wave generator

The output of integrator is a Triangular Wave Generator Using

Op amp if its input is a square wave. This means that a Triangular
Wave Generator Using Op amp can be formed by simply
connecting an integrator to the square wave generator as shown
in fig
Triangular wave generator
 Triangular wave generator

Triangular wave is generated by alternatively charging and

discharging a capacitor with a constant current. This is achieved
by connecting integrator circuit at the output of square wave
generator. Assume that V’ is high at +Vsat. This forces a constant
current (+Vsat/R3) through C (left to right) to drive Vo negative
linearly. When V’ is low at —Vsat, it forces a constant current (—
Vsat /R3) through C (right to left) to drive Vo positive, linearly.
The frequency of the triangular wave is same as that of square
wave.
 Low Pass Filter

Frequency range is governed by: • Used to filter out signals above a specified
frequency
1
f  • Example: Noise
2  R  C
Low pass filter-frequency response
When the input signals are at low frequencies the signals will pass through the
amplifying circuit directly, but if the input frequency is high the signals are
passed through the capacitor C1. By this filter circuit the output signal
amplitude is increased by the pass band gain of the filter. We know that, for
non-inverting amplifier circuit the magnitude of the voltage gain is obtained by
its feedback resistor R2 divided by its corresponding input resistor R3. This is
given as follows​
Low Pass Filter
 High Pass Filter

• Filters out frequencies below a specified

frequency
• Reverse locations of resistors and capacitors in
a low pass filter