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Day 24

MATH24-1 (Differential Equations)

Ch 3.7 Mechanical and Electrical Vibrations


(Page 192-207)
Elementary Differential Equations and Boundary Value Problems, 10th edition, by
William E. Boyce and Richard C. DiPrima, ©2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Two important areas of application for second order linear
equations with constant coefficients are in modeling
mechanical and electrical oscillations.
• We will study the motion of a mass on a spring in detail.
• An understanding of the behavior of this simple system is the
first step in investigation of more complex vibrating systems.
Spring – Mass System

• Suppose a mass m hangs from a vertical spring of original


length l. The mass causes an elongation L of the spring.
• The force FG of gravity pulls the mass down. This force has
magnitude mg, where g is acceleration due to gravity.
• The force FS of the spring stiffness pulls the mass up. For
small elongations L, this force is proportional to L.
That is, Fs = kL (Hooke’s Law).
• When the mass is in equilibrium, the forces balance each
other: mg = kL
Spring Model

• We will study the motion of a mass when it is acted on by an


external force (forcing function) and/or is initially displaced.
• Let u(t) denote the displacement of the mass from its
equilibrium position at time t, measured downward.
• Let f be the net force acting on the mass. We will use
Newton’s 2nd Law: mu″(t) = f(t)
• In determining f, there are four separate forces to consider:
– Weight: w = mg (downward force)
– Spring force: Fs = −k(L+ u) (up or down force, see next slide)
– Damping force: Fd(t) = − u (t) (up or down, see following slide)
– External force: F (t) (up or down force, see text)
Spring Model:
Spring Force Details
• The spring force Fs acts to restore a spring to the natural
position, and is proportional to L + u. If L + u > 0, then the
spring is extended and the spring force acts upward. In this
case Fs  k ( L  u)
• If L + u < 0, then spring is compressed a distance of |L + u|,
and the spring force acts downward. In this case
Fs  k L  u  k  L  u   k L  u 
• In either case,
Fs  k ( L  u)
Spring Model:
Damping Force Details
• The damping or resistive force Fd acts in the opposite direction as
the motion of the mass. This can be complicated to model. Fd may
be due to air resistance, internal energy dissipation due to action of
spring, friction between the mass and guides, or a mechanical
device (dashpot) imparting a resistive force to the mass.
• We simplify this and assume Fd is proportional to the velocity.
• In particular, we find that
– If u′ > 0, then u is increasing, so the mass is moving downward.
Thus Fd acts upward and hence Fd = − u′, where  > 0.
– If u′ < 0, then u is decreasing, so the mass is moving upward.
Thus Fd acts downward and hence Fd = − u′,  > 0.
• In either case,
Fd (t )   u(t ),   0
Spring Model:
Differential Equation
• Taking into account these forces, Newton’s Law becomes:
mu(t )  mg  Fs (t )  Fd (t )  F (t )
 mg  k L  u (t )   u(t )  F (t )
• Recalling that mg = kL, this equation reduces to
mu(t )   u(t )  ku(t )  F (t )
where the constants m, , and k are positive.
• We can prescribe initial conditions also:
u(0)  u0 , u(0)  v0
• It follows from Theorem 3.2.1 that there is a unique solution to
this initial value problem. Physically, if the mass is set in motion
with a given initial displacement and velocity, then its position is
uniquely determined at all future times.
Example 1:
Find Coefficients (1 of 2)
• A 4 lb mass stretches a spring 2″. The mass is displaced an
additional 6″ and then released; and is in a medium that exerts a
viscous resistance of 6 lb when the mass has a velocity of 3 ft/sec.
Formulate the IVP that governs the motion of this mass:
mu(t )   u(t )  ku(t )  F (t ), u(0)  u0 , u(0)  v0
• Find m: 2
w 4 lb 1 lb sec
w  mg  m   m  m 
g 32ft / sec 2 8 ft
• Find  :
6 lb lb sec
 u  6 lb     2
3ft / sec ft
• Find k:
4 lb 4 lb lb
Fs  k L  k   k  k  24
2 in 1 / 6 ft ft
Example 1:
Find IVP (2 of 2)
• Thus our differential equation becomes
1
u(t )  2 u(t )  24u (t )  0
8
and hence the initial value problem can be written as
u(t )  16 u(t )  192u (t )  0
1
u (0)  , u(0)  0 ut

2 0.8

u (t ) 
1  8t
e (2 cos(8 2 t )  2 sin( 8 2 t ))
• This problem can be solved using the 0.6 4

methods of Chapter 3.3 and yields 0.4

the solution 0.2

1  8t
u (t )  e (2 cos(8 2 t )  2 sin( 8 2 t ))
t
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

4 0.2
Spring Model:
Undamped Free Vibrations (1 of 4)

• Recall our differential equation for spring motion:


mu(t )   u(t )  ku(t )  F (t )
• Suppose there is no external driving force and no damping.
Then F(t) = 0 and  = 0, and our equation becomes
mu(t )  ku(t )  0
• The general solution to this equation is
u (t )  A cos 0t  B sin 0t ,
where
02  k / m
Spring Model:
Undamped Free Vibrations (2 of 4)

• Using trigonometric identities, the solution


u (t )  A cos 0t  B sin 0t , 02  k / m
can be rewritten as follows:
u (t )  A cos 0t  B sin 0t  u (t )  R cos0t   
 u (t )  R cos  cos 0t  R sin  sin 0t ,
where
B
A  R cos  , B  R sin   R  A  B , tan  
2 2

A
• Note that in finding , we must be careful to choose the
correct quadrant. This is done using the signs of cos  and
sin .
Spring Model:
Undamped Free Vibrations (3 of 4)

• Thus our solution is


u(t )  A cos 0t  B sin 0t  R cos0t   
where
0  k / m
• The solution is a shifted cosine (or sine) curve, that describes simple
harmonic motion, with period
2 m
T  2
0 k
• The circular frequency 0 (radians/time) is the natural frequency of
the vibration, R is the amplitude of the maximum displacement of
mass from equilibrium, and  is the phase or phase angle
(dimensionless).
Spring Model:
Undamped Free Vibrations (4 of 4)

• Note that our solution


u(t )  A cos 0t  B sin 0t  R cos0t   , 0  k / m
is a shifted cosine (or sine) curve with period
m
T  2
k
• Initial conditions determine A & B, hence also the amplitude R.
• The system always vibrates with the same frequency 0,
regardless of the initial conditions.
• The period T increases as m increases, so larger masses vibrate
more slowly. However, T decreases as k increases, so stiffer
springs cause a system to vibrate more rapidly.
Example 2: Find IVP (1 of 3)

• A 10 lb mass stretches a spring 2″. The mass is displaced an


additional 2″ and then set in motion with an initial upward
velocity of 1 ft/sec. Determine the position of the mass at any later
time, and find the period, amplitude, and phase of the motion.
mu(t )  ku(t )  0, u(0)  u0 , u(0)  v0
• Find m:
w 10 lb 5 lb sec 2
w  mg  m   m  2
 m
g 32ft / sec 16 ft
• Find k:
10 lb 10 lb lb
Fs  k L  k   k  k  60
2 in 1 / 6 ft ft
• Thus our IVP is
5 / 16 u(t )  60u (t )  0, u (0)  1 / 6, u(t )  1
Example 2: Find Solution (2 of 3)

• Simplifying, we obtain
u(t )  192u (t )  0, u (0)  1 / 6, u(0)  1

• To solve, use methods of Ch 3.3 to obtain


1 1
u (t )  cos 192 t  sin 192 t
6 192
or
1 1
u (t )  cos 8 3 t  sin 8 3 t
6 8 3
1 1
u (t )  cos 8 3t  sin 8 3t
Example 2: 6 8 3
Find Period, Amplitude, Phase (3 of 3)

• The natural frequency is


0  k / m  192  8 3  13.856 rad/sec
• The period is
T  2 / 0  0.45345 sec
• The amplitude is
R  A2  B 2  0.18162 ft
• Next, determine the phase  :
A  R cos  , B  R sin  , tan   B / A
B  3 
1  3

tan    tan      tan    0.40864 rad
A 4 
 4 

Thus u (t )  0.182 cos 8 3t  0.409 
Spring Model: Damped Free Vibrations (1 of 8)

• Suppose there is damping but no external driving force F(t):


mu(t )   u(t )  ku(t )  0
• What is effect of the damping coefficient  on system?
• The characteristic equation is
    2  4mk   4mk 
r1 , r2    1  1  2 
2m 2m   
• Three cases for the solution:
 2  4mk  0 : u(t )  Aer1 t  Be r2 t , where r1  0, r2  0 ;
 2  4mk  0 : u (t )   A  Bt e  t / 2 m , where  / 2m  0 ;
4 mk   2
 2  4mk  0 : u (t )  e  t / 2 m  A cos  t  B sin  t ,    0.
2m
Note : In all three cases, lim u (t )  0, as expected from the damping term.
t 
Damped Free Vibrations: Small Damping (2 of 8)

• Of the cases for solution form, the last is most important,


which occurs when the damping is small:
 2  4mk  0 : u(t )  Aer t  Be r t , r1  0, r2  0
1 2

 2  4mk  0 : u(t )   A  Bt e  t / 2m ,  / 2m  0
 2  4mk  0 : u(t )  e t / 2m  A cos  t  B sin  t ,   0
• We examine this last case. Recall
A  R cos  , B  R sin 
• Then
u(t )  R e  t / 2 m cos t   
and hence
u(t )  R e t / 2m
(damped oscillation)
Damped Free Vibrations: Quasi Frequency (3 of 8)

• Thus we have damped oscillations:


u(t )  R e t / 2m cos t     u(t )  R e t / 2m
• The amplitude R depends on the initial conditions, since
u(t )  e t / 2m  A cos  t  B sin  t , A  R cos  , B  R sin 
• Although the motion is not periodic, the parameter 
determines the mass oscillation frequency.
• Thus  is called the quasi frequency.
• Recall
4mk   2

2m
Damped Free Vibrations: Quasi Period (4 of 8)

• Compare  with 0 , the frequency of undamped motion:


 4km   2 4km   2 4km   2 2
    1
0 2 m k / m 2
4m k / m 4km 4km
2
For small  2
 4
 2  2
 1  2 2
 1    1 
4km 64k m  8km  8km
• Thus, small damping reduces oscillation frequency slightly.
• Similarly, the quasi period is defined as Td = 2/. Then
1 / 2 1
Td 2 /  0  2   2  2
   1    1    1 
T 2 / 0   4km   8km  8km

• Thus, small damping increases quasi period.


Damped Free Vibrations:
Neglecting Damping for Small  2/4km (5 of 8)

• Consider again the comparisons between damped and


undamped frequency and period:
1/ 2 1 / 2
   
2
Td   
2
 1   ,  1  
0  4km  T  4km 
• Thus it turns out that a small  is not as telling as a small
ratio  2/4km.
• For small  2/4km, we can neglect the effect of damping
when calculating the quasi frequency and quasi period of
motion. But if we want a detailed description of the motion
of the mass, then we cannot neglect the damping force, no
matter how small it is.
Damped Free Vibrations:
Frequency, Period (6 of 8)

• Ratios of damped and undamped frequency, period:


1/ 2 1 / 2
    2
T    2
 1   , d  1  
0  4km  T  4km 
• Thus
lim   0 and lim Td  
 2 km  2 km
• The importance of the relationship between 2 and 4km is
supported by our previous equations:
 2  4mk  0 : u(t )  Aer t  Be r t , r1  0, r2  0
1 2

 2  4mk  0 : u (t )   A  Bt e  t / 2 m ,  / 2m  0
 2  4mk  0 : u(t )  e t / 2m  A cos  t  B sin  t ,   0
Damped Free Vibrations:
Critical Damping Value (7 of 8)

• Thus the nature of the solution changes as  passes through


the value 2 km .
• This value of  is known as the critical damping value, and
for larger values of  the motion is said to be overdamped.
• Thus for the solutions given by these cases,
 2  4mk  0 : u(t )  Aer t  Be r t , r1  0, r2  0
1 2
(1)
 2  4mk  0 : u(t )   A  Bt e t / 2m ,  / 2m  0 (2)
 2  4mk  0 : u(t )  e t / 2m  A cos  t  B sin  t ,   0 (3)
We see that the mass creeps back to its equilibrium position
for solutions (1) and (2), but does not oscillate about it, as it
does for small  in solution (3).
• Soln (1) is overdamped and soln (2) is critically damped.
Damped Free Vibrations:
Characterization of Vibration (8 of 8)

• The mass creeps back to the equilibrium position for


solutions (1) & (2), but does not oscillate about it, as it does
for small  in solution (3).
 2  4mk  0 : u (t )  Aer t  Be r t , r1  0, r2  0
1 2
(Green) (1)
 2  4mk  0 : u (t )   A  Bt e  t / 2 m ,  / 2m  0 (Red, Black) (2)
 2  4mk  0 : u (t )  e  t / 2 m  A cos  t  B sin  t  (Blue) (3)

• Solution (1) is overdamped.


• Solution (2) is critically damped.
• Solution (3) is underdamped.
Example 3: Initial Value Problem (1 of 4)

• Suppose that the motion of a spring-mass system is governed by


the initial value problem
u  0.125u  u  0, u (0)  2, u(0)  0
• Find the following:
(a) quasi frequency and quasi period;
(b) time at which mass passes through equilibrium position;
(c) time  such that |u(t)| < 0.1 for all t > .
• For Part (a), using methods of this chapter we obtain:
 255 2 255  32  t /16  255 
u (t )  e  t / 16
 2 cos t sin t   e cos t   
 16 16 
 255 255  16 
where
1
tan      0.06254 (recall A  R cos  , B  R sin  )
255
Example 3: Quasi Frequency & Period (2 of 4)

• The solution to the initial value problem is:


 255 2 255  32  t /16  255 
u (t )  e  t / 16
 2 cos t sin t   e cos t   
 16 16 
 255 255  16 
• The graph of this solution, along with solution to the
corresponding undamped problem, is given below.
• The quasi frequency is
  255 / 16  0.998
and quasi period is
Td  2 /   6.295
• For the undamped case:
0  1, T  2  6.283
Example 3: Quasi Frequency & Period (3 of 4)

• The damping coefficient is  = 0.125 = 1/8, and this is 1/16 of


the critical value 2 km  2
• Thus damping is small relative to mass and spring stiffness.
Nevertheless the oscillation amplitude diminishes quickly.
• Using a solver, we find that |u(t)| < 0.1 for t >   47.515 sec
Example 3: Quasi Frequency & Period (4 of 4)

• To find the time at which the mass first passes through the
equilibrium position, we must solve
32  t /16  255 
u (t )  e 
cos t     0
255  16 
• Or more simply, solve
255 
t  
16 2
16   
t       1.637 sec
255  2 
Electric Circuits
The flow of current in the circuit is governed by Kirchhoff’s
second law: In a closed circuit the impressed voltage is equal
to the sum of the voltage drops in the rest of the circuit.
• The relation between charge Q and current I is
I = dQ/dt → (31)
• The voltage drop across the resistor is IR.
• The voltage drop across the capacitor is Q/C.
• The voltage drop across the inductor LdI/dt.
Hence, by Kirchhoff’s law,
𝑑𝐼 1
𝐿 + 𝑅𝐼 + 𝑄 = 𝐸 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
(32)
Electric Circuits
The units for voltage, resistance, current, charge, capacitance,
inductance, and time are all related:
1 volt = 1 ohm · 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/1 farad = 1 henry · 1
ampere/second.
Substituting for I from Eq. (31), we obtain the differential
equation
″ ′ 1
𝐿𝑄 + 𝑅𝑄 + 𝑄 = 𝐸 𝑡 → (33)
𝐶
For the charge Q, the initial conditions are
Q(t0) = Q0, Q′(t0) = I(t0) = I0. → (34)
Electric Circuits
Differentiating Eq. (33) with respect to t, and then
substituting for dQ/dt from Eq. (31). The results is
1
𝐿𝐼 ″ + 𝑅𝐼 ′ + 𝐼 = 𝐸′ 𝑡 , → (35)
𝐶
with the initial conditions
I(t0) = I0, I′(t0) = I0′. → (36)
From Eq. (32) it follows that
𝐸 𝑡0 −𝑅𝐼0 − 1Τ𝐶 𝑄0
𝐼0′ = . → (37)
𝐿
Hence, I0′ is also determined by the initial charge and current,
which are physically measurable quantities.
Examples
In each of Problems 1 through 4, determine ω0, R, and δ so as
to write the given expression in the form u = R cos(ω0t − δ).
1/203) u = 3 cos 2t + 4 sin 2t
4/203) u = −2 cos πt − 3 sin πt

5/203) A mass weighing 2 lb stretches a spring 6 in. If the


mass is pulled down an additional 3 in and then released, and
if there is no damping, determine the position u of the mass at
any time t. Plot u versus t. Find the frequency, period, and
amplitude of the motion.
Examples
6/203) A mass of 100 g stretches a spring 5 cm. If the mass is
set in motion from its equilibrium position with a downward
velocity of 10 cm/s, and if there is no damping, determine the
position u of the mass at any time t. When does the mass first
return to its equilibrium position?

7/203) A mass weighing 3 lb stretches a spring 3 in. If the


mass is pushed upward, contracting the spring a distance of 1
in, and then set in motion with a downward velocity of 2 ft/s,
and if there is no damping, find the position u of the mass at
any time t. Determine the frequency, period, amplitude, and
phase of the motion.
Examples
8/204) A series circuit has a capacitor of 0.25 × 10−6 F and an
inductor of 1 H. If the initial charge on the capacitor is 10−6 C
and there is no initial current, find the charge Q on the
capacitor at any time t.

9/204) A mass of 20 g stretches a spring 5 cm. Suppose that


the mass is also attached to a viscous damper with a damping
constant of 400 dyn·s/cm. If the mass is pulled down an
additional 2 cm and then released, find its position u at any
time t. Plot u versus t. Determine the quasi frequency and the
quasi period. Determine the ratio of the quasi period to the
period of the corresponding undamped motion. Also find the
time τ such that |u(t)| < 0.05 cm for all t > π.
Examples
12/204) A series circuit has a capacitor of 10−5 F, a resistor of
3 × 102 Ω, and an inductor of 0.2 H. The initial charge on the
capacitor is 10−6 C and there is no initial current. Find the
charge Q on the capacitor at any time t.

17/204) A mass weighing 8 lb stretches a spring 1.5 in. The


mass is also attached to a damper with coefficient γ.
Determine the value of γ for which the system is critically
damped; be sure to give units for γ.
Examples
18/204) If a series circuit has a capacitor of C = 0.8 × 10−6 F
and an inductor of L = 0.2 H, find the resistance R so that the
circuit is critically damped.

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