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Nature of Solutions
Gold or sterling silver jewelry are examples of solid solutions. The most
common solid solutions are combinations of two or more metals called
alloys.
Concentration Units
Sample Problems
1. A sample of 0.892 g of potassium chloride (KCl) is dissolved in 54.6 g
of water. What is the percent by mass of KCl in the solution?
2. A solution is prepared by dissolving 10 g of glucose C6H12O6 in 100 g
of water. What is the percentage by mass of glucose in the solution?
3. 15 mL of alcohol is mixed with 85 mL of water. Find the percent by
volume of alcohol in the solution.
Mole Fraction
Sample Problems
1. An aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid contains 36% HCl by mass.
Calculate the mole fraction of HCl in the solution.
2. A commercial bleach solution contains 3.62 mass % NaOCl (sodium
hypochlorite) in water. Calculate the mole fraction of NaOCl in the
solution.
3. A solution contains equal masses of glycerol (C3H8O3) and water .
Calculate the mole fraction of glycerol.
Molarity
Sample Problems
1. If you dissolve 0.500 mol of Na2CO3 (sodium carbonate) in enough
water to form 0.250 L of solution, what is the molarity of Na2CO3 in
the solution?
2. A solution with a density of 0.876 g/mL contains 5.0 g of toluene
(C7H8) and 225 g of benzene. Calculate the molarity of the solution.
3. A solution contains equal masses of glycerol (C3H8O3) and water .
Calculate the molarity of glycerol in the solution.
Molality
Sample Problems
1. Calculate the molality of a sulfuric acid solution containing 24.4 g of
sulfuric acid in 198 g of water. The molar mass of sulfuric acid is
98.09 g.
2. A solution is made by dissolving 4.35 g glucose (C6H12O6) in 25.0
mL of water at 25 degrees C. Calculate the molality of glucose in the
solution. Water has a density of 1.00 g/mL.
3. An aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid contains 36% HCl by mass.
Calculate the molality of HCl in the solution.
PPM and PPB
Sample Problems
1. A 2.5-g sample of groundwater was found to contain 5.4 µg of
Zn2+.What is the concentration of Zn2+ in parts per million?
2. The maximum allowable concentration of arsenic in drinking water
in the United States is 0.010 ppm; that is, 0.010 mg of arsenic per
liter of water. What is the corresponding concentration in ppb?
Effect of Temperature on the Solubility
of Solids and Gases
Vapor-Pressure Reduction
Vapor-Pressure Reduction
Sample Problems
Boiling-Point Elevation
Boiling-Point Elevation
molal boiling-point
molality of the
elevation constant
solution
Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions
Freezing-Point Depression
The freezing point of a solution is lower than that of a pure solvent. The
greater the number of solute particles, the lower its freezing point
because the solute interferes with the crystallization of the solvent, and
thus need to be cooled down to a lower temperature to achieve a solid.
Like the boiling point elevation, the freezing point of a solution is
directly proportional to the molal concentration of the solution, that is,
Freezing-Point Depression
molal freezing-
molality of the
point depression
solution
constant
Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions
Sample Problems
Osmotic Pressure
The osmotic pressure (π) of a solution is the pressure required to stop
osmosis.
Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions
Osmotic Pressure