Nucleic acids and Protein Synthesis

Introduction

– Each cell of our bodies contains thousands of different proteins.

– How do cells know which proteins to synthesize out of the extremely

large number of possible amino acid sequences?

– the transmission of hereditary information took place in the nucleus,

more specifically in structures called chromosomes.

– The hereditary information was thought to reside in genes within the

chromosomes.

– Chemical analysis of nuclei showed chromosomes are made up

largely of proteins called histones and nucleic acids.
 Nucleic acids

Backbones of chromosomes

Ribonucleic acids (RNA)

Nucleic acids

Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA)

 Nucleic acids

DNA stores the genetic information of an organism and transmits

that information from one generation to another.

RNA translates the genetic information contained in DNA into proteins

needed for all cellular function.

RNA and DNA are unbranched polymers (monomers: nucleotides).

 Nucleotide

A nucleotide is composed of:

• Nitrogen-containing bases (amines)

• Sugars (monosaccharides)
• Phosphate

Phosphate
 Bases

N H2 O O
4
CH 3
3 N 5 N HN HN
2 6
N O N O N O N
1
H H H
Pyri mi dine Cytosine (C) Thymine (T) Uraci l (U)
(DNA and (DNA onl y) (in RNA only)
some RNA)

6 7 N H2 O
1 5 N
N N N HN N
8
2 N9
N 4 N N H 2N N N
3
H H H
Puri ne Adenine (A) Guani ne (G)
(DNA and RNA) (DNA and RNA)
 Sugars (monosaccharide)

RNA contains:
• D-Ribose sugar

DNA contains:
• 2-Deoxy-D-Ribose sugar (without O on carbon 2)
 Nucleoside

When a N atom of the base forms a glycosidic bond to C1’ (anomeric C) of

a sugar.

Base + Sugar Nucleoside

O O
uracil O
CH3
HN
HN
N O N -D -ribos ide 1
H H 5' O N a -N -glycosid ic
HOCH 2 O bonß-N-glycosidic
d bond
hymine (T) Uraci l (U) 1'
NA onl y) (in RNA only) 4' H H
H 3' 2' H anomeric
HO OH carb on

O
Urid ine

HN N
 Nucleoside

To name a nucleoside derived from a pyrimidine base, use the suffix “-idine”.

To name a nucleoside derived from a purine base, use the suffix “-osine”.
For deoxyribonucleosides, add the prefix “deoxy-”.
 Nucleotide

A nucleotide forms with the −OH on C5’ of a sugar bonds to

phosphoric acid.

NH2 NH2
Phosphate ester bond

N N

O O O O N
N 5’
5’
O- P OH + HO CH2 O- P O CH2
O O
-
O- 1’ O

OH OH

deoxycytidine and phosphate deoxycytidine monophosphate (dCMP)

A nucleotide

The name cytidine 5′-monophosphate is abbreviated as CMP.

 Nucleotide

The name deoxyadenosine 5’-monophosphate is abbreviated as dAMP.

 Primary structure of DNA and RNA
Polynucleotide
Carry all information
for protein synthesis.

Phosphodiester
bond

Sequence of nucleotides.

Each phosphate is linked to C3’ and C5’ of two sugars.

 Primary structure of DNA and RNA

A nucleoside = Base + Sugar

A nucleotide = Base + Sugar + Phosphate

A nucleic acid = A chain of nucleotides

Like amino acids (C-terminal and N-terminal):

Base sequence is read from the C5’ (free phosphate) end to the C3’ (free hydroxyl) end.

-ACGU-
 Secondary structure of DNA

• The DNA model is proposed by 5’ 3’

Watson and Crick in 1953.

• Two strands of polynucleotide form a

double helix structure like a spiral.
Sugar phosphate
backbone
3D structure

• Hydrogen bonds link paired bases:

Adenine-Thymine (A–T)
Guanine-Cytosine (G-C)

• Sugar-Phosphate backbone is
hydrophilic and stays on the outside
(bases are hydrophobic).
3’ 5’
 Secondary structure of DNA

A Purine base always hydrogen bonds with a pyrimidine.

 Higher structure of DNA

• DNA is coiled around proteins called histones.

• Histones are rich in the basic amino acids

• Acidic DNA basic histones attract each other and form a

chain of nucleosomes.

Core of eight histones

Higher structure of DNA

Chromatin:
Condensed nucleosomes
 Higher structure of DNA

Chromatin fibers are organized into loops, and the loops into the bands
that provide the superstructure of chromosomes.
 Chromosome & Gene

- DNA molecules contain several million nucleotides, while RNA

molecules have only a few thousand.

- DNA is contained in the chromosomes of the nucleus, each

chromosome having a different type of DNA.

- Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs), each made up of many

genes.

- A gene is the portion of the DNA molecule responsible for the synthesis
of a single protein (1000 to 2000 nucleotides).
 Difference between DNA & RNA

1. DNA has four bases: A, G, C, and T.

RNA has four bases: A, G, C, and U.

2. In DNA: Sugar is 2-deoxy-D-ribose.

In RNA: Sugar is D-ribose.

3. DNA is almost always double-stranded (helical structure).

RNA is single strand.

4. RNA is much smaller than DNA.

 RNA molecules

Transmits the genetic information needed to operate the cell.

1. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Most abundant RNA – is found in ribosomes: sites for protein synthesis.

2. Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Carries genetic information from DNA (in nucleus) to ribosomes (in cytoplasm)
for protein synthesis. They are produced in “Transcription” from DNA.

3. Transfer RNA (tRNA)

The smallest RNA. Translates the genetic information in mRNA and brings specific
Amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis.
 NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES

The number of chromosomes per organism is always a definite number,

Which is said as Diploid (2n) no., but gametes, sperms, ova etc. carry
Haploid (n) number. Some examples are given below.

Name of the Diploid No. Name of the Diploid No.

organism (2n) organism (2n)

Human beings ---- 46 Onions ----- 16

Cat ---- 38 Corn ----- 20
 PHYSICAL STRUCTURE
Size varies from 1 to 30 micron in length and diameter from 0.2
to 2 micron.
CENTROMERE:- The non-stainable part of the chromosome
making a primary constriction.
CHROMATIDS:- Two chromatids join at the centromere to form a
chromosome.
CHROMONEMA:- In each chromatid, there are two longitudinal
chromonemata coiled with each other.
CHROMOMERES:- In each chromonemata, there are “bead” like
chromomeres present through out the coil.
GENES:- Each chromomeres contains genes, the unit of
inheritance of character.
SATELLITE:- In some chromosomes a round and elongated
satellite is present.
CONSTRICTION:- Presence of centromere shows the primary
constriction. But in some cases there is an additional Secondary
SURFACE VIEW Constriction.
 TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES
1. TELOCENTRIC:- The centromere is CENTROMERE

present at the end of the chromosomes.

LONG ARM
SHORT ARM

CENTROMERE
2. ACROCENTRIC:-The centromere
is almost terminal. It has one large
LONG ARM and another very small arm.
 TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES
(CONTINUED)

SHORT ARM 3. SUB-METACENTRIC:- Here the centromere

is not at the middle position of the
CENTROMERE
chromosomes. So the arms are unequal and it
is ‘L-Shaped’ in appearance.

LONG ARM
TWO EQUAL ARMS

4. METECENTRIC:- The centromere

is at the middle position. So the arms
are equal and it is ‘V-Shaped’ in
CENTROMERE
appearance.
 CHEMICAL STRUCTURE
Chemically the chromosomes are made of
proteins and nucleic acids.

PROTEINS It is mainly Protamines, Histones and smaller amount

of acidic proteins.

NUCLEIC ACIDS It is de-oxy ribose Nucleic Acids (DNA). Genes

are nothing but the segments of DNA.

NB:- For brief notes about DNA structure, “Open the Hyperlink at
Right End.” CLICK

HYPERLINK
 FUNCTION OF CHROMOSOMES
FUNCTION OF CHROMOSOMES

[I]- The chromosomes are capable of self-

duplication. During duplication process the DNA
strands unwind. As unwinding starts, each template
of DNA forms its complementary strand in double-
helix nature. The conversion of the old DNA
molecule into two new molecules, helps in
duplicating the chromosomes.